Life and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents....................................................................2
Introduction ..............................................................................5
1. Arabia before Islam............................................................7
Makkah..................................................................................8
The Characteristics of the Arab People .......................14
2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad ............................18
Opposition Intensified.......................................................32
Islam spreads to Yathrib (Madinah) ..............................37
The Prophet Arrives at Madinah.....................................40
Brotherhood of Islam ........................................................41
The Prophet’s Mosque......................................................42
The Prophet’s Family.........................................................43
Jihad.....................................................................................44
The Battle of Badr ..............................................................44
The Battle of the Trench ...................................................46
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.....................................................47
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Life and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
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Cal to the World................................................................48
Fal of Makkah....................................................................49
Pardon for Al ......................................................................50
Battle of Hunayn................................................................50
First Haj under Islam..........................................................51
The Farewel Pilgrimage ...................................................52
3. The Concept of Worship in Islam...................................54
The Implication of worship...............................................56
Five Pillars of Islam .............................................................58
The Spirit of Faith ................................................................59
The Spirit of Salah...............................................................60
The Spirit of Fasting............................................................60
The Spirit of Zakah..............................................................61
The Spirit of Haj ..................................................................62
4. The Concept of the State in Islam.................................64
5. The Status of Woman in Islam.........................................75
Hijab in Islam.......................................................................78
6. War and Peace in Islam ..................................................83
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam .........................91
Merit of the learned and learners..................................92
The Development of Natural Sciences.........................95
8. The Concept of Ijtihaad in Islam..................................102
9. Human Rights in Islam ....................................................116
Some Comparative Examples......................................120
1. Freedom of religion: ...................................................120
2. Justice and equality before the Law:.....................121
3. Freedom of expression and dissent: .......................123
10. The Concept of Social Welfare in Islam...................126
11. The Concept of Spirituality in Islam...........................137
12. The Relevance of the Quran and Sunnah in Modern
Times.......................................................................................150
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Life and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
BOOKS on Seerah (Life of the Prophet) exist in great numbers.
These are no doubt valuable books in their own right. However,
one aspect of Seerah still remains to be highlighted. And that is,
the relevance of seerah in the modern world. It is a subject, which,
despite its great importance, has yet to be treated with sufficient
thoroughness.
The books written on the subject of seerah give extensive
coverage to miracles, wars and victories. Emphasis on these
matters appeals to the conventional mind, but it has no appeal for
modern man. These things do not address his mind. The modern
man thinks in terms of science and not in terms of miracles. He
thinks in terms of peace and not in terms of war. He is more
interested in solutions to human, social and economic problems,
rather than descriptions of political and military conquests. A thing
becomes understandable to the modern man only when it is
presented within the framework of reason rather than beliefs.
I have planned my book keeping in view this most urgent,
present day requirement. I want to present a book, which is not
just a repetition of the books already written, but one whose aim
would be to fulfill modern intellectual requirements, focusing on
the relevance of the Prophet of Islam in contemporary global
context.
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Life and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
Introduction
Another important thing, which is lacking in most of the books
of Seerah is that they do not underscore the peaceful method
followed by the Prophet.
A deep study of Seerah tells us that the Prophet invariably
adopted the peaceful method unilaterally. He thus succeeded in
bringing about a bloodless revolution in Arabia. Unfortunately, this
aspect of Seerah has not been highlighted in existing biographies of
the Prophet.
In present times, owing to certain global concerns, the
propensity to study Islam has greatly increased. Al over the world,
curiosity has been aroused as to what exactly is meant by Islam.
What is urgently needed, therefore, is an objective, in-depth
study of Islam—one which presents Islam as it actual y is,
uncompromisingly and without bias. It is in order to meet this
need—in particular, to show how Islam can meet the challenge of
violence—that I have undertaken the venture of presenting Islam
as it is in the light of Prophet’s life and teachings.
Farida Khanam
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Life and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
1. Arabia before Islam
1. ARABIA BEFORE ISLAM
WITH an area of 1,20,000 square miles the land of Arabia is the
largest peninsula in the world. It has the Red Sea to the West, the
Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Adan to the south-east and the rivers
Euphrates and Tigris and the Persian Gulf to the north-east. It thus
occupies a unique position. It is situated in Asia, yet only the
narrow Red Sea divides it from Africa and by just passing through
the Suez Canal, one reaches the Mediterranean Sea and Europe. It
is thus at the centre of three continents, yet it is apart from all of
them.
Arabia being a very hot and dry country, one third of it is
desert. It is strange that a land surrounded by water on three sides,
and with only a narrow strip of land to the north, has practically no
river of its own, except for small streams here and there, which
soon dry up in the hot desert.
Rain too is scarce. The rains come in torrents in spring, but the
water does not stay. It is lost in the sand as quickly as it comes.
There being no dependable rainy reason, which is necessary for
agriculture, this vast land, about a thousand kilometres wide and
about the same in length, is neither fertile nor cultivable.
Yemen, the original home of the Semites, is the only exception,
in that it is fertile and enjoys a rainy season. Besides this, the rest
of the peninsula consists of barren valleys and deserts. Due to the
lack of vegetation, life here can be only that of the desert. The
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camel, the only means of transportation is indispensable, for a
desert life demands continuous movement. The desert dwellers
must continual y go in search of pastures, which are scarce and
thin, and soon cropped bare. The pastures turn green around
spring, watered by springs which form in the wake of occasional
rainfalls. In such an infertile country where no agriculture has ever
been possible, the only produce is dates. In the context of this
civilization, Yemen has always been very developed in terms of
agriculture. Showing great intelligence the Yemenis invented ways
of saving rain water from running down to the sea so that artificial
irrigation could be carried out. Moreover, they built the famous
dam of Maarib by changing the natural course of the water. This
water is gathered in a 400 meter wide valley between two
mountains by constructing a dam with gates at the narrowest point
in the valley.
Then this water is divided into many streams and spread over a
wide area of plains. It is almost like the Nile in the dam area in
Upper Egypt. In this way they have contrived to have a controlled
distribution of their water. The fertility of their land has gone on
increasing and the people of Yemen have become very prosperous.
MAKKAH
When Hajira’s infant son started crying for water she ran
desperately between the hills of Safa and Marwah in search of
water. She ran seven times when finally she discovered a spring of
water gushing from the ground by the side of her son. It was this
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1. Arabia before Islam
spring which is known as Zamzam. Makkah is founded at this
spring spot of Zamzam.
Both Makkah and Madinah were, and still are, islands in a sea
of desert. These towns were initially inhabited by the descendants
of the nomads, who still retained many of the desert born habits of
their ancestors.
Situated in a valley, Makkah is one of the oldest cities in the
world. It is a desert, with no vegetation, no date-palms.
There are some fertile spots in the desert, which are called
oases. There are also springs of water here and there, although
grass and palm trees grow. These springs of water are scattered all
over the desert. Large as well as small clans settle around the
oases.
Makkah since ancient times was an important centre for the
caravans coming from the south with valuable merchandise. They
brought gold, precious stones and spices from Africa to Yemen.
From here it was taken to the markets of Syria, Egypt and many
other places on the backs of camels.
The merchants travelled in caravans for the sake of safety. For
in those days caravans were an easy target. Since these caravans
passed through vast stretches of uninhabited deserts, it was easy
for plunderers to rob them of all their merchandise.
At Makkah agriculture not being possible, the city thrived on
commerce. Makkah became an important trading centre because of
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the Sanctuary – the Kabah, to visit which people came from places
far and near. Its geographical position was very good from the
point of view of trade, it being situated at the crossroads of the
routes from Yemen to Syria and Abyssinia to Arabia. So the
nomads came to Makkah from all sides. By the 6th century, Arab
traders had become very influential and controlled the trade from
Yemen to Syria. Taif was also an important commercial centre but
Makkah was more important because of the Kabah.
So Makkah became a religious as well as a financial centre. By
the time the Prophet conquered Makkah, we find many influential
traders who were adept at doing business with different parts of the
world. Although Yemen was the most advanced province in the
Arabian Peninsula because of its water resources and sound
administration, Makkah being a religious centre wielded greater
influence on this account. Makkah, a focal point of pilgrimage
dating back to the origin of Arab history, owed its status to the
Kabah, which had been built by Ibrahim and Ismail.
Everyone observed its holy months for religious reasons as well
as on account of the special position it enjoyed with regard to
trade, being the capital of the peninsula.
The Arabs of the North are considered Arab al mustaribah,
“Arabized Arabs.” The Qahtanis of the South are considered Arab
al Mutaarribah, or tribes resulting from mixing with the Arab al
Aribah, original, or true Arabs. From the Qahtanis descend the
Arabs of ancient South Arabia, or “Himyarite” Kingdoms. The
completely “true Arabs”, descendants of Aram, son of Shem, son
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of Noah, are called the Arab al baidah, “the lost Arabs”, their
identity having been submerged in that of other peoples.
The progeny of Ismail were known as Mustariba, or naturalised
Arabs, and they greatly multiplied. They were divided into many
tribes and clans. The Quraysh, the largest tribe, descending from
the Kinanah and Ismail, had several clans. They were settled in
Makkah by an ancestor of renown called Qusayy, who displaced the
previous inhabitants, the Khuzaah. The clans who lived in the
vicinity of the Kabah were considered most honourable. These
were called Quraysh al Bitah (the Quraysh of the Hollow).
The location of Makkah on important caravan routes across the
Peninsula, and the prestige of the Kabah in the age of Ignorance
(Jahiliyyah) gave it great advantages as a trading city. This is why
the Quraysh became one of the richest and most powerful tribes.
This, together with their descent from the Kinanah and Ismail, gave
them claims to an aristocratic pre-eminence.
The Prophet Muhammad was of the Banu Hashim clan of the
Quraysh, who lived in the vicinity of the Kabah and enjoyed great
honour and prestige in Arabia. These clans were divided into
families. Besides these Arabs there were also Christian and Jews
who lived in Arabia. A large number of their population lived in
Madinah.
In Arabia there are two different geographical types of soil
markedly different from one another – the oasis and the desert.
The inhabitants of Arabia naturally fall into two main groups:
nomadic and settled people. The city dwel ers settled in one place
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and lived on cultivation because they knew how to till the land and
grow corn. They engaged in commerce not only within their own
country, but also abroad. But the Bedouins, being nomads, disliked
the idea of a settled life and wandered from place to place with
their families and belongings. Prof. Hitti in his book the History of
the Arabs, writes: “The Bedouin is no gypsy roaming aimlessly for
the sake of roaming. He represents the best adaptation of human
life to desert conditions.” (p. 23)
They lived in tents and possessed goats, camels and horses.
They were continually on the move in search of pastures and when
they halted temporarily they lived in tents or camps. They engaged
for economic reasons in horse-breeding, hunting, camel raising,
etc. They thought that these were the only occupations worthy of a
man. They disliked agriculture, trade and commerce. In the desert
the basic unit of life is not the state but the tribe. The Bedouins
attach the greatest importance to total freedom for the individual
as well as the tribe, but this was not the case with the city-dwellers.
They attached importance not only to freedom but also to peace,
security and prosperity. Another feature of tribal life, is the belief in
absolute equality. All the members of the tribe are treated equally.
This is because of the influence of the desert, with the freedom of
its vast limitless expanses. If they had any injustice forced upon
them, which they could not bear or confront, they left behind their
pasture and moved on to another place where there would be no
injustice—only freedom and equality. In times of conflict, they
depended upon the sword. It was considered as a pre-requisite for
the individual to be able to defend himself and his tribe.
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The nomadic life is based upon stockbreeding, especially the
breeding of camels. There is some rain in the winter season and
then some vegetation comes up in the low-lying areas. These areas
become a paradise for camels, as they provide the best pasture,
but with the coming of summer the pasture vanishes. Then the
nomads move on in search of other green areas in order to feed
themselves as well as their camels. Then there are some wells,
which provide water for the camels. The milk of the camels is the
diet of the nomads along with dates, which are obtained from the
oases. Cereals are not easily available. Only the rich can afford
them. The oases that are found in Madinah are near the
mountains. So there the date crop is grown. And in Taif, which has
very fertile soil, cereals are grown. Madinah has the largest of the
oases.
Ibrahim was the first to teach them the worship of one God.
The Arabs followed the religion of Ibrahim for some generations,
but their later generations tended to deviate from the straight path
shown to them by Ibrahim and became idolators. At the time of the
birth of the Prophet, the whole of Arabia had taken to idolatry.
Some of the tribes worshipped stars and planets, some stone idols,
and, thus the Kabah, which had been built for the worship of God
became a centre of idolatry. It housed 360 idols, one for each day
of the year. Hubal was the most honoured. Carved in red stone, it
held seven arrows in its hand. Among the Arabs lots were drawn to
decide all important matters.
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The Quraysh were the most influential tribe in Makkah. Most of
them were engaged in trade, and some of them were great traders.
The name Quraysh is derived from a word which means to trade.
Since the Quraysh was the largest and most powerful tribe in
Makkah, its chief was the most influential man in Makkah.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARAB
PEOPLE
Islam emerged in a region known as Hijaz, inhabited by the
descendants of Ismael and Banu Kinanah. These people had access
only to limited resources, limited habitable area, cattle, pasture and
oases. Everything was in short supply. So they could afford to lead
an extremely simple life.
Due to these constraints they often waged war, sometimes to
take possession of the limited reservoirs of water and pastures.
Nevertheless, these Bedouins had noble human qualities. For they
lived very far from the artificial world of civilization. The
atmosphere of nature served as a vast school of nature for them.
They never led the artificial life of the cities and their life was
devoid of all formalities. This extremely simple, austere life made
them realists.
All this was responsible for producing in them the qualities
which the Arabs call al muruuwah, manliness, which meant to them
acknowledging the truth, speaking nothing but the truth, fulfilling
promises, honouring obligations, supporting the oppressed,
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1. Arabia before Islam
boldness, noble character, patience, generosity and hospitality.
When this high level of humanity was combined with the truth of
Islam, they were enabled to perform great feats. It was this truth
which has been thus expressed in a hadith:
“Those who were good people in the days of
ignorance will also be good people during Islam.”
In ancient Arabia despite their battles, wars, conflicts and
tensions, their vows of revenge, which went on for generation after
generation, their mentality, their thinking, their aptitude for
acknowledging the truth were fully preserved.
For instance, once in ancient Makkah two groups: were ready
to fight. At this juncture, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb intervened and said
to them: “If you waged a war so many people would be killed
belonging to both the groups. So should I not tel you something
better?” They agreed with him. Then Abu Sufyan said: “What has
passed has passed, now you must make peace.” Both the parties
accepted his advice there and then and made peace. This was in
spite of the fact that there were people who used to go on fighting
for as long even as 50 years to avenge a murder or an insult or any
injustice done to them.
Due to the paucity of economic resources, there were people
who indulged in looting. But even these people were of a noble
character. Once a Bedouin wanted to robe a woman who was all
alone in her tent decked with jewellery. But he did not enter the
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tent. He stood at the door and commanded her to take off al her
jewellery and hand it over to him.
While the woman was taking off her jewellery, the man stood at
the door with his back towards it, so that he did not catch sight of
the woman while she was taking off her jewellery.
These Arabs had not been idol worshippers since ancient
times. Idolatry was only a later introduction into their lives through
foreign influence. The idols were imported into Arabia. So there
was no ideology behind this idol worship. It was thus of a
superficial nature, having no deep ideological or philosophical
root. For instance, once an Arab wanted to take revenge for his
father. So he went to an idol cal ed Dhul Khalasa for divining
arrows. But the answer that came from the idol was not in the
affirmative. This enraged the Arab and, addressing the idol, he
uttered these words: O Dhul Khalasa, had your father been killed
you would never have uttered this falsehood that the oppressor
should not be punished.”
Similarly, another Arab led his camels to his idol Sad in order
to seek its blessing. It was a tall idol, and was covered in blood due
to the sacrifices made to it. On seeing this sight, the camels were
frightened and ran away. When the Arab saw the flight of his
camels, he hit the idol with a stone, abusing him:
“May God destroy you. I had come to seek your
blessings and you made my camels run away.”
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Of these ancient Arabs there were a sizeable number who were
known as Hanif. These people were truth seekers and they shunned
idolatry. They lived an aloof, social life. They used to say:
“O, God, I do not know how You should be
worshipped. Had I known, I would have certainly
worshipped you in that manner.”
These circumstances of the ancient Arabs and their moral
qualities had a close affinity with Islam. These people true in
nature, were as if potential converts of Islam. Therefore when the
Prophet of Islam began his preaching in 610, these Hanifs took no
time in responding to his call and became his devoted companions,
Abu Bakr ibn Abi Qahafa being one of those Hunafa. What
distinguished the Arabs from others was that they could not afford
to reject a truth when it had become clear to them. That is why in
the initial stage of the Prophet’s call, due to some
misunderstanding, a number of them turned against the Prophet
Muhammad. But when final y they learned that what the Prophet
was telling them was nothing but the truth, they took no time in
entering the fold of Islam. There are a number of incidents in the
books of Seerah to this effect.
Thus the sending of the Final Prophet was not without reason.
It was a well-planned decision of God which He in His Own
knowledge decreed. These Arabs were the living people who were
selected by God to lend ful support to His final Prophet, so that
he might fulfill the divine mission.
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
2. THE LIFE OF THE PROPHET
MUHAMMAD
THE Prophet of Islam, Muhammad ibn Abdul ah, was born in
Makkah in 570 A.D. in the tribe of Quraysh and died at the age of
63 in 632 A.D. in Madinah. The year of his birth is known among
the Arabs as the year of the Elephant (Aam al-Fil) referring to the
campaign of Abraham, an Abyssinian ruler, who had come to
Makkah to destroy Kabah. Makkah was then inhabited mainly by the
tribe of Quraysh. In those times, this tribe enjoyed great prestige all
over Arabia and the neighbouring countries, for Makkah was a
flourishing trade and religious centre.
Muhammad was still in his mother’s womb when his father,
Abdullah, died. After his birth, Amine, his mother, sent the baby to
Abdul Mutely, his grandfather, who was in Kabah at that time. The
grandfather was overjoyed at the news, for he loved Abdullah,
Muhammad’s father, very much. The grandfather gave him the
name “Muhammad”, meaning “the praised one.” As was the
practice of the Makkah nobility, he was handed over to a wet
nurse, Kalimah al-Sadly, who belonged to the Banu Sad tribe. This
custom is still practiced among Makkah aristocracy.
Kalimah nursed Muhammad for two years and a few months.
She said that when he stayed with them, her family received all
kinds of unaccustomed blessings. Having nursed so many children
before, she noticed something ‘different’ or ‘extraordinary’ about
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
the infant Muhammad. These observations are recorded in detail
by some biographers such as Al-Walid, Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Hisham.
Two years later, after the child had been weaned, Kalimah
brought him back to his mother. But Makkah at that time was
stricken with an epidemic, so Amine asked her to take him back to
live in the pure air of the desert.
Thus Muhammad remained in the charge of Kalimah until the
age of five. He learned Arabic in its purest form from this tribe.
Muhammad used to tell his companions, “I am the most Arab
among you, for I am of the tribe of Quraysh and I have been
brought up among the tribe of Banu Sad bin Bakr.
Muhammad returned to his mother after five years of desert
life. Then Amine took him to Madinah to meet her uncles, the
Banu al-Ajar. She was accompanied by Umm Layman, her servant,
on that trip. After a stay of a month in Bathrobe, Amine was on her
way back to Makkah, when passing through a village called Abash,
she fell ill and died there. She was buried in Abash. It fell to Umm
Layman to bring Muhammad back to Makkah.
Therefore, the orphan Muhammad was taken care of by his
grandfather Abdul Mutely, chief of the clan of Banu Hashim. He
looked after him with great affection. As leader of the Quraysh, he
used to sit on a cushion in Kabah, whenever Muhammad joined
him, he was al owed to sit on that cushion. If anyone tried to stop
him, his grandfather would say, “Leave him alone. By God, he is
very important.” (Ibn Hisham) Abdul Mutely died when
Muhammad was eight years old.
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
Now the guardianship of Muhammad passed to Abu Talib, his
uncle, who was a merchant. Once when Abu Talib was preparing
to go to Syria on a trading journey, Muhammad expressed a keen
desire to accompany him. Though he was very young to undertake
such a difficult journey, Abu Talib was so full of affection for him
that he could not refuse, and agreed to take him on the journey.
Their trade caravan halted in the city of Bursa in Syria. There
was a Christian monk by the name of Bah rah living there in a
monastery. He had read in the ancient books about the emergence
of an Arab prophet. He recognised in Muhammad the signs of
prophethood. He knew at once that he was the boy who had been
destined to become the last of the prophets.
The monk invited the whole caravan to his monastery and
asked Abu Talib, “In what way are you related to this child?” He
said, “He is my son.” Bah rah said, “It cannot be. His father should
not be alive.” Then Abu Talib informed him that his father was no
longer alive. Bah rah advised him to return with his nephew
immediately and to protect him from enemies. He said, “By God, if
he is recognised, he will surely be harmed.”
Ibn Ishaq writes, “Muhammad entered his adulthood as if God
Himself was protecting him from the widespread evils of the period
of ignorance.” By this time he was well-known in Makkah for his
good morals, gentle disposition and sincerity. In fact, he was called
Al-Amin (trustworthy) and As-Sadiq (truthful) by his compatriots.
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Life and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad
2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
When Muhammad was twenty-five, a rich 40-year old widow,
Khadijah bent Khuwaylid of the Quraysh tribe, entrusted him with
the management of her business. She used to employ men to
engage in trading on her behalf, and rewarded them with a share of
the profits. Muhammad was so honest in all his dealings that she
was deeply impressed by his virtues and expressed her desire to
marry him. After consultations with his uncle, Muhammad
accepted the proposal of marriage. Khadijah became his first wife
and during her lifetime he had no other wife. With the exception of
Ibrahim, who died in infancy, all his children were born to
Khadijah. All his sons died in infancy. Of the daughters, Ruqaiyyah,
Zaynab, Umm Kulthum and Fatimah lived long enough to accept
Islam and migrate to Madinah with the Prophet.
When Muhammad was twenty-five, the Quraysh decided to
rebuild the Kabah after a sudden flood had shaken its foundations
and cracked its wal s. The old structure was demolished and the
new construction began. When the walls rose from the ground and
the time came to place the famous Black Stone (Hajr al-Aswad) in
its place on the east wall, a dispute arose among the clans as to
who would have the honour of laying it in place. Each clan wanted
to have the honour of placing the stone for itself. This dispute
almost led to a civil war. No peaceful solution seemed possible.
At this critical juncture Abu Umayyah, son of Mughirah al-
Makhzumi said to the Makkans, “Put it off till tomorrow, the man
who enters the Kabah first of all in the morning will be our
arbitrator in this dispute.” Everybody liked the idea. Men from
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
different tribes ran to the Kabah before dawn next morning. Each
one tried to be the first to enter the House of God. But the first
one to pass through the gate was Muhammad. On seeing him they
all said, “There goes al-Amin. We shall agree with his verdict.”
Then he was asked to give his decision on the matter. He took a
sheet of cloth and spread it on the ground, and placed the Black
Stone in the middle of it and then he asked the chiefs of all tribes
to hold different ends of the sheet and lift it up. They carried the
stone to the site of construction. Then Muhammad picked up the
stone from the sheet and set it in place. Thus a bloody clash was
averted and the dispute resolved to everybody’s satisfaction.
The life of Muhammad, may peace be upon him, before
prophethood has been recorded in detail in several books.
However, the following events are worth mentioning. A covenant
known as the Alliance of Fudul (Hilf al-Fudul) had been entered
into by three men, Fadal bin Fadalah, Fadal bin Vida and Fadal bin
Harith. This was to ensure that no oppressor ever lived in Makkah.
(Sirat ibn Hisham)
This Alliance ceased to exist after the death of its architects.
Muhammad was 15 years of age when a civil war broke out
involving the tribes of Quraysh and Qais. It is known as the Fijar
War. In view of the widespread disturbances some people thought
of reviving the Alliance of Fudul, to restore tribal harmony and
ensure peaceful co-existence.
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It happened that a trader from Yemen sold some of his goods
to Aaas bin Wail, but he was not paid in full. He composed
couplets narrating his misfortune and pleading for justice. This
touched the pride of the Makkans, who gathered at the house of
Abdullah bin Jud‘an at the instance of Zubayr ibn Abd al Muttalib.
After consultations, it was decreed that the Alliance of Fudul
should be renewed. Everyone agreed to support the cause of the
oppressed, whether or not they belonged to Makkah. They also
resolved to force the oppressor to give the oppressed their rightful
dues.
Twenty years before prophethood, Muhammad, may peace be
upon him, participated in the Alliance. Twenty years after the
prophethood he said, “I was present at the house of Abdullah bin
Jud‘an at the time of the Alliance. I will not go back on it, even if I
were to be given hundred red camels. Even after Islam has been
established, I shall still be in favour of such treaty.’
During that period, there were other social treaties as well.
Banu Abd al-Dar and his colleagues once gathered in the precincts
of Kabah and vowed that they would not leave each other in time
of need and they would not hand over anyone to other groups.
Muhammad, may peace be upon him, did not rescind these
treaties. However, he supported them. He even said that such
treaties of mutual understanding and reconciliation have been
further strengthened after the advent of Islam.
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
Before the prophethood, Muhammad, may peace be upon him,
was engaged in trading. Abdullah bin Abi al-Hamsa said:
“I had transacted some business with Muhammad, may
peace be upon him, in those days and owed him
money. I asked him to wait till I brought the required
sum. When I reached home, I completely forgot about
it. I remembered three days later and rushed to the
spot where I had left Muhammad, may peace be upon
him. He was there waiting for me.”
He did not upbraid me. All he said was ‘You caused
me a great deal of inconvenience. I have been waiting
for you here for the last three days.’ (Ibn Ishaq)
Abdullah bin Saib said that during the days of Ignorance, he
was a partner in trade with Muhammad, may peace be upon him.
Much later he went to Madinah and met him. Muhammad, may
peace be upon him, said, “Do you recognise me?” He said,
“Indeed, you were my partner in trade. And what a wonderful
partner you were! You never indulged in deceit or quarrels.”
Even before his prophethood, Muhammad used to shun
polytheism, idolatry and rude behaviour. During his second journey
to Syria, a dispute arose between Muhammad and a man in the
course of a transaction. The man said:
“I will accept your words if you swear in the names of
Lat and Uzza. (The two of three main idols worshipped
in Makkah, mentioned in the Quran 53:19-20).
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Muhammad replied:
‘I have never sworn in the name of Lat or Uzza till
today. Whenever I come by chance upon Lat or Uzza, I
avoid them and carry on.”
With reference to such incidents, Ibn Hisham has rightly
concluded that:
“The Messenger of God entered his adulthood as if
God was protecting and watching over him. And He
kept him safe from the evils of the time because, He
wanted to confer on him honour and prophethood.
Thus he reached a position of supremacy over al the
men of his tribe. Of all of them, he was the best
behaved. He was the noblest among them by his
lineage and was the best neighbour. He was
unparalleled in forbearance. He was honest in what he
said, and the most trustworthy. He refrained from
misconduct. Ultimately, he began to be called Al-Amin
(the trustworthy) in Makkah.” (Sirat Ibn Hisham)
With his marriage with the wealthy Khadijah, Muhammad had
access to all her wealth and property, he could expand his business
as much as he desired. He had every opportunity to lead a
successful and comfortable life. But with the passing of years he
became less and less interested in business and devoted more and
more of his time to the search of truth by means of reflection and
meditation, instead of trying to establish himself in his society he
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took to the desert. He would often go to mount Hira, three miles
from Makkah. He stayed there in the cave lost in thoughts for
hours. When his supply of food and water were exhausted, he
returned home for provisions and went back to the solitude of
nature for prayer and meditations. He sought answers to the
mysteries of life. What is man’s true role in life? What does the
Lord require of us, as His servants? From where man comes and
where will he go after death? It was to find answers to these
perplexing questions that he betook himself to the stillness of the
desert. With all these questions in mind, worldly gain and loss,
comfort and distress did not concern him. He urgently wanted the
answer to these important questions of truth. For nothing less than
the truth could satisfy his soul. This phase of Muhammad’s life is
referred to in the Quran in this verse.
“Did He not find you wandering and guide you?”
(93:7).
He spent the whole of the month of Ramadan in the Cave of
Hira. Finally after spending six long months in the cave, God
turned in mercy to His Prophet, to guide him to the path of truth.
At the age of 40, on February 12, 610 A.D., the Prophet was
sitting all alone in his Cave. The angel of the Lord appeared to him
in human form, bringing the first message from God. These words
form part of the beginning of the ninety sixth chapter of the Quran.
The Prophet’s quest had finally been rewarded. God granted him
guidance and chose him as His Prophet.
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The angel said to him “Read.”
The Prophet replied, “I do not know how to read.”
Then Muhammad felt that his body was being squeezed hard.
Then the angel released him and repeated the same command.
Again Muhammad replied that he did not know how to recite.
Then the angel again squeezed him and then released him for the
third time and said: Read!”
Then a change came over him and he was able to repeat the
divine words. Then Gabriel revealed to him the chapter Al-Alaq.
“Recite in the name of your Lord, who created; who
created man from a clot of blood; Recite, and your
Lord is the most Gracious. It is He who has taught man
by the pen that which he did not know.” (96:1-5)
Muhammad recited these verses repeating them after the angel.
Then he found that these words were written on his heart (Ibn
Ishaq).
The Prophet trembled in fear of what he had seen and heard in
the cave. The revelation was totally a new experience for him. He
set off for his house immediately after the disappearance of the
angel.
On reaching home the Prophet asked Khadijah to wrap him in
blankets. He was shivering from high fever. When he calmed down,
he related the whole incident to her.
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Khadijah, being very kind and understanding tried her best to
assure him.
She said:
“By Him who dominates Khadijah’s soul, I pray and I
hope that you will be the Prophet of this nation. By
God, He will not let you down. You are kind to your
relations. You speak the truth, you help the poor and
bear their burden, you honour guests and help those in
distress. Surely God will never let you fail.”
Khadijah then suggested that they should go and consult her
cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal, who had become a Christian hermit.
Waraqa heard the whole account from Muhammad and said:
“I am sure the angel that descended on Moses has
descended on you. You will be abused, and you will be
pursued. I wish I could be alive to give you my support
when your people will turn you out.”
“Will they turn me out?” The Prophet found this difficult to
believe. Waraqa replied that people have always turned against
those who are recipients of God’s messages.
The Prophet’s wife Khadijah was the first convert to Islam.
When the news of Muhammad’s prophethood reached a freed
slave, Zayd who was 30 years of age, and his cousin Ali, who was
about eleven, both declared their faith in Islam. Abu Bakr, the
Prophet’s friend from childhood, was out of town. On his return he
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heard of the new experience of the Prophet. People said to him
that his friend had taken leave of his senses, believing that angels
brought him messages from God. But Abu Bakr trusted the
Prophet completely. Not for one moment did he doubt his
veracity. He immediately went to meet the Prophet to find out the
truth for himself. Abu Bakr asked the Prophet whether an angel
had really descended upon him from God and had given him a
message. The Prophet said “Yes,” and without a moment’s
hesitation Abu Bakr professed his faith. He did not require any
arguments to be convinced that he was tel ing the truth.
This small group of the Faithful were the first believers of Islam.
In the first stage, the Prophet was asked to spread the message of
Islam quietly to avoid arousing any hostility. Abu Bakr, being an
influential merchant, was able to bring some of his friends, also rich
merchants, into the fold of Islam. But the majority of the
conversions took place among the weak and the poor.
In the second stage the Prophet received the command from
God to spread the message publicly, but first to his own kin.
According to Arab custom, people used to ascend a hill when
they had to announce some important news. So the Prophet, with
his all-important tidings, climbed up on a hillock called Safa,
situated near the Kabah. He then called out to the people, who all
gathered around him. Then he addressed them thus: “If I tel you
that a big army is hiding behind that mountain and is ready to
attack you, will you believe me?” They all chorused, “Of course,
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we will, for we trust you. We know you always tell the truth.” Then
the Prophet said:
“God has commanded me to warn you, my kinsmen,
that you should worship none but the one and only
God. If you fail to do so, you will invite God’s wrath.
And I will not be able to do anything to help you, even
though you are my kinsmen.”
Abu Lahab, the Prophet’s uncle, became very angry and said:
“Woe to you on this day! Did you assemble us for
this?”
Some remarked that he had gone mad. Soon they all dispersed
without caring to give any thought to the words of the Prophet.
There was one main reason for the Quraysh to oppose the
Prophet, and to keep him from spreading his message. Makkah was
a centre of pilgrimage because of the Kabah, which housed 360
idols of the neighbouring tribes and nations. Since Islam believed
in only one God, the Quraysh feared that once the concept of one
God became popular, the tribes would stop visiting the Kabah to
pay homage to the idols. This would deprive them of the respect
they commanded as guardians of the Kabah. Besides, the
prosperity of Makkah depended mainly on these idols. People in
great numbers from the neighbouring tribes used to visit Makkah
all the year round to make offerings to the idols. This brought
prosperity to Makkah, for trade flourished side by side with the
pilgrimage. Makkah being a desert, no agriculture or economic
resources existed there. The Kabah was their only asset. But, all
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the Makkans were not hostile. There were people who gave serious
thought to the message of the Quran and gradually began to
accept Islam. About 200 people from Makkah as well as the
neighbouring settlements entered the fold of Islam.
The Quraysh who enjoyed the Makkan leadership considered
the teachings of the new religion an insult to the religion of their
forefathers. In Islam they saw a danger to their own leadership.
Such leaders as Abu Jahl, Abu Lahab were the most hostile to the
Prophet. They began to give serious thought to the matter. Islam
was fast gaining ground, so they thought that they could not afford
to postpone taking action. This menace, they had to nip in the
bud.
The chiefs of different clans gathered to discuss this matter.
They all felt that if Abu Talib did not come in their way, they would
have no difficulty in finding a solution to this problem. So they all
came to Abu Talib to tell him to stop Muhammad from spreading
his message.
They warned him, “Tell Muhammad to stop spreading his
message, or you will abandon him. If you fail to do so, you should
be ready to suffer for the deeds of your nephew.”
Abu Talib, an old man, felt that he would not be able to resist
their wrath. So he told Muhammad what the Quraysh chiefs had
said to him and then added, “My dearest nephew, look to your
own safety, and to the safety of your uncle, and do not cause me to
carry a burden I cannot bear.”
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For a while the Prophet stood motionless. On the one hand,
there was his old uncle weakened by the people’s opposition, and
on the other hand, there was the responsibility to proclaim the
truth till his last breath. And the only source of strength was his
faith and his conviction in the truth. So he decided to discharge his
duty whatever the cost. In a firm and calm voice, and with tears in
his eyes, he said:
“O uncle! By God Almighty, I swear that even if they
were to place the sun on my right and the moon on my
left, I would not give up my mission. I must go on
carrying it out until I die.”
Abu Talib, touched by the sincerity and force of the words
uttered by his nephew, remained motionless for a while. Then he
turned to the Prophet and said:
“My nephew, go your way. Do your duty. Let my
people turn against me. I am with you. No one shall
harm you as long as I live.”
OPPOSITION INTENSIFIED
When the Quraysh saw that the pressure on Abu Talib had
failed, they decided to make life unbearable for the Prophet and his
followers. Slaves, the weakest sections of the society, were the
worst sufferers. Their masters beat them brutally and some of them
were beaten to death. But they suffered all this patiently. Abu Bakr
spent much of his wealth on freeing these slaves.
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Even the wealthy Muslims were not spared. They were also
persecuted. Their own relatives turned against them. After the
death of Abu Talib and Khadijah, people were emboldened to
persecute the Prophet. They threw rubbish on him as he passed
through the streets. They spread thorns in his path. They made
noises when the Prophet stood up in the Kabah to pray.
The Makkans did all that they could to turn people away from
the Prophet. But in spite of all their ef orts Islam continued to
spread. Some of the powerful men of Makkah accepted Islam.
Hamzah, the Prophet’s uncle, Umar ibn Al-Khattab, who was
famous for his bravery, and Abu Dharr Ghifari were among them.
The Makkan chiefs were more enraged than before. They made
life so difficult for the Muslims that a number of them migrated to
Abyssinia, an area nearby, with the Prophet’s permission. At first
fifteen men and women migrated to Abyssinia. Slowly, the number
reached 83.
This safe haven of the Muslims made the Makkans all the more
angry. They sent two of their men to Negus, the king of Abyssinia.
These men brought him precious gifts and requested him to turn
these ‘ignoble’ people out of his land as they had forsaken their
forefather’s religion to follow a new religion. Negus sent for the
Muslims and asked them to explain their case. Thereupon Jafar,
son of Abu Talib, briefly explained to him the teachings of Islam
and recited some portions from the Quran from the chapter called
‘Mary’. Negus was very impressed and he said:
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“Go forth into my kingdom; I shall not extradite you at
all.”
Then he turned to the Makkans and said:
“Go away, I cannot give up these people. They are
following the true faith.”
With the passage of time, the Makkan chiefs became more and
more bitter. They felt that it was Muhammad’s clan, the Banu
Hashim, headed by Abu Talib that was responsible for all this
misery and that if they had given up Muhammad, all his activities
could have been stopped without delay. They made it known to the
Banu Hashim that if they did not surrender Muhammad to them,
they would have to suffer the consequences.
The tribes of Makkah entered into an agreement. They agreed
to cut off al dealings with the Banu Hashim. No one was to sell
anything to them. The agreement was signed and hung up in the
sacred Kabah. This was the seventh year of prophethood.
This period of boycott was one of great hardship for the Banu
Hashim and the Muslims. While this ban was in force, Abu Talib,
the chief of the Banu Hashim, had to take refuge in a narrow valley,
which came to be known as Abu Talib’s Pass. For three years, the
Prophet and all his relatives lived in this valley. Many of the
Muslims joined them. All supplies to the valley were cut off. The
Banu Hashim had to live on the leaves and roots of trees.
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Finally, certain kind-hearted Makkan leaders took pity on the
Banu Hashim. They tore to pieces the agreement hanging in the
Kabah so that the Banu Hashim could come back to their homes.
But soon after this, Abu Talib the Prophet’s uncle, died. His health
had deteriorated during the three years of hardship. Although Abu
Talib had not accepted Islam, as head of his clan he had protected
the Prophet from his opponents.
After his death, Abu Lahab, another uncle of the Prophet,
became head of the Banu Hashim. He was the bitterest enemy of
Islam and Muslims. He made it clear to the Quraysh that
Muhammad no longer enjoyed his clan’s protection. In those days,
it was impossible for an individual to survive without the protection
of his clan.
Khadijah, the faithful wife of the Prophet, also died soon after
the ban was lifted. Both these deaths took place in the 10th year of
prophethood.
The loss of Abu Talib and Khadijah saddened the Prophet, for
they had been great sources of strength to him. It was their deaths
that made the enemy bold enough to persecute him. One day
when the Prophet was praying in the Kabah, Abu Jahl put a piece
of cloth round his neck and twisted it hard. He would have
strangled the Prophet had not Abu Bakr rushed to his help in time.
Day by day, the situation worsened. So the Prophet decided to
go to Taif, a neighbouring town, 40 miles from Makkah to spread
the teachings of Islam. He was accompanied only by his servant
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Addas. He spoke to the leaders of the town and invited them to
accept Islam. They paid no heed to his message. They were such
evil people that they did not stop at that. When the Prophet was
leaving the town in a dejected state, he was chased by street
urchins instigated by these chiefs. They abused him and threw
stones at him as he walked out of town. They continued to pelt
stones at him, until the cover of the darkness of night came in
before them and the Prophet. He stopped on the way in an orchard
to rest. He was badly hurt, bleeding profusely. Yet he only prayed
for their guidance. He did not curse them. In all humility he
addressed God in these words.
“Lord! Forgive these people, for they know not what
they do.”
In the tenth year of Prophethood the angel Gabriel came to
take the Prophet on the miraculous journey to the heavens known
as Miraj. They first went from Makkah to Jerusalem, the Prophet
riding on a winged horse. At Jerusalem, the Prophet said his
prayers in the Temple of David, where all other prophets joined
him in prayer. Then he ascended to the heavens still accompanied
by the angel Gabriel. God granted an audience to His messenger.
It was on this blessed occasion that the Prophet received God’s
commandments including the prayer to be said five times daily. The
Prophet then came back home. Al this took place overnight.
There are two views about this heavenly journey. Some hold
that this ascension was made by the Prophet’s soul, while others
hold that it was made by his body. According to Umm Hani, the
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body of the Prophet was never missed from his bed. Rather God
caused only his soul to travel. Aishah, the Prophet’s wife, was also
of the same view. A third opinion is that Miraj from Makkah to
Jerusalem took place in the flesh, while from Jerusalem to the
heavens it took place only in spirit.
ISLAM SPREADS TO YATHRIB (MADINAH)
The Prophet used to convey the message of Islam to the
people coming from outside Makkah. In the eleventh year of
prophethood six men from the tribe of Khazraj of Yathrib (later
came to be known as Madinatun-Nabi, Prophet’s city) accepted
Islam during their pilgrimage to Makkah in 620. The following year
twelve more men from Yathrib accepted Islam. This time they took
an oath pledging allegiance to the Prophet. This oath is known as
the First Pledge of Aqabah, named after the Aqabah pass, at Mina,
near Makkah, where they had been sworn. They requested the
Prophet to send Musab bin Umayr, a companion of the Prophet, to
Yathrib to convey the message of Islam to the inhabitants. There
the divine message was immediately well received, and within a
year, a number of people converted to Islam as a result of the
preaching of Musab ibn Umayr.
In the thirteenth year of Prophethood, seventy two Muslims
from Yathrib came for the Hajj. On behalf of their people they
invited the Prophet to make Yathrib his home. During the
pilgrimage they also took the oath, known as the second pledge of
Aqabah. These men from Yathrib, of the tribes of Aws and Khazraj,
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pledged to protect the Prophet from his enemies. For all this
sacrifice on their part they wanted only one assurance from the
Prophet: that when the Prophet had gained power, he should not
leave them and return to Makkah. The Prophet replied:
“You have that assurance. I am yours and you are
mine.”
Now the Muslims began to emigrate to Yathrib in large
numbers to escape persecution at the hands of the Quraysh. Only
the Prophet, Abu Bakr and a few Muslims were left in Makkah.
This infuriated the Quraysh for Islam was now strengthening its
root in Yathrib. They were greatly alarmed that their enemies were
gaining a firm foothold. There was nothing more dangerous than
that. So they resolved to remove the danger once and for all. They
said:
“Kill Muhammad and Islam will die with him.”
As the Makkans plotted against his life, God sent His command
to the Prophet to leave for Yathrib. First of all he called Ali and
gave him the deposits of the people and asked him to return it to
the depositors. The young men with whom the Quraysh had
planned to carry out the assassination collected on that fateful
night to put their plan to action. But God had another plan. And
who can overrule the plan of God? Accordingly, the Prophet made
Ali lie in his bed while he himself left the house at midnight.
The Prophet had already informed Abu Bakr, his closest friend,
of the plan to emigrate, to be conducted in total secrecy. They left
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Makkah before dawn, riding on two camels, which Abu Bakr had
kept ready to carry them across the desert. About five miles from
the city they took shelter in a cave called Thawr.
When the Makkans learnt of the Prophet’s escape, they were
mad with rage. They offered a prize of one hundred camels to
anyone who captured Muhammad. A number of horsemen raced
out into the desert. One of them even managed to reach the very
mouth of the cave of Thawr. Abu Bakr was stricken with fear lest
they harm the Prophet. But the Prophet reassured him, saying:
“Fear not. We are not two only in this cave. There is a
third—God.” (Bukhari)
The Prophet and Abu Bakr lay hidden in this cave for three
days and three nights. On the fourth day they came out and
continued the journey along with Abdullah ibn Urayqit, their guide,
and Amir bin Fuhaira, Abu Bakr’s servant.
Suraqah bin Malik was one of those horsemen who, wanting to
earn the reward of a hundred camels, went in hot pursuit of the
Prophet.
After a continuous ride of a day and a night the Prophet and
Abu Bakr stopped to rest. It was then that Suraqah, who had
sighted them on the road to Madinah, managed to come close to
them. But when he spurred on his horse, it stumbled and fell
bringing Suraqa down also. He made two more attempts to go
near the Prophet but the same happened each time. Now Suraqa
was frightened. He realised that none can harm the Prophet, for he
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was under divine protection. He begged for mercy. The Prophet
forgave him.
THE PROPHET ARRIVES AT MADINAH
After six days’ journey the Prophet reached Quba, a village
three miles from Madinah. At that time the people of Madinah had
been waiting impatiently for his arrival. The Prophet stayed for two
weeks in Quba, where he built the first mosque of Islam.
Each morning people used to come out of the city and watch
the road from Quba. At last the great day arrived. He set off for
Madinah on a Friday morning. When he entered the town, he
found that all the people, men, women and children, had turned
out to receive him. The women stood on the house-tops and sang
songs of joy.
They had all lined both sides of the street to receive him. When
the Prophet entered the city, everybody wanted him to be his
guest. The more zealous held the reins of the camel and wanted
the Prophet to dismount in front of their doors and enter their
houses. But the Prophet refused politely and said:
“Leave my camel alone. She is under the command of
God; she will stop where God wants her to stop.”
It finally stopped at a site, which belonged to two orphans of
the Banu Najjar tribe. The Prophet dismounted saying: “It seems
that this is where God wants us to stop.”
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He then bought this land to build a mosque and some houses
on it. After settling this matter, the Prophet asked who lived
nearest to the site. Abu Ayyub Ansari said that his house was the
nearest and requested the Prophet to be his guest. The Prophet
stayed in his house for about seven months. In the meantime, his
house was built.
From the day the Prophet came to Yathrib, it came to be cal ed
Madinatun-Nabi or “The City of the Prophet.”
The Prophet entered Yathrib on the 17 September 622. This
year was later designated by Caliph Umar as the first year of the
Islamic era, for this event was considered to be the most important
in the history of Islam.
BROTHERHOOD OF ISLAM
The first problem faced by the Prophet was that of the Makkan
refugees. They had neither homes nor money. Most of them had
been well to do in Makkah, but they had left everything there. So the
first important thing for the Prophet was to settle them in their new
surroundings.
The solution to this problem was found in the concept of
brotherhood in Islam. The Prophet collected the Muslims and
suggested that one Ansari (Madinan) Muslim and one refugee
Makkan Muslim should become linked together as two brothers.
They immediately accepted the suggestion of the Prophet. Each
Ansari took one Makkan Muslim as his brother. This bond between
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the two became even more powerful than a blood relationship. The
Ansari gave his Makkan brother half of everything he possessed—
house, land, money and other belongings.
THE PROPHET’S MOSQUE
The next most important task for the Prophet was to build a
mosque. This mosque was built on the land he had bought from
the orphans. It had mud walls and a roof of palm leaves. Huts were
built adjacent to the mosque for the Prophet’s family.
A platform with a thatched roof was built in one corner of the
mosque. Poor people who had no home or family lived here. They
spent their time in worship and prayer. They were fed by those
Muslims who could afford to do so. They also sometimes earned
their living by col ecting wood from the jungle and selling it in the
market. These people came to be known as Ashabus-Safa, people
of the bench. Abu Hurayrah, also one of Ashabus-Safa, and the
most constant attendant of the Prophet, related more traditions of
the sayings and doings of the Prophet than any other.
Yathrib was inhabited mostly by the tribes of Aws and Khazraj.
Both tribes rapidly entered the fold of Islam. Some Jewish tribes
also lived in the city. They were rich, owned orchards and were
very powerful.
Now the Prophet turned his attention to the important task of
establishing friendly relations with various tribes. The Banu
Qaynuqa, Banu Nazir, Banu Qurayza, the Jewish tribes, were
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neither friendly nor hostile towards the Aws and Khazraj. But now
that the Aws and Khazraj had accepted Islam, it was necessary to
make a new treaty to determine each other’s rights and duties in
the new scenario, with the Prophet as their leader.
This pact dictated by the Prophet granted full religious freedom
to the Jews. The Muslims and the Jews had to live in peace and
amity together as brothers, helping one another in times of need.
After the conclusion of this treaty, Islam found a safe home in
Yathrib.
THE PROPHET’S FAMILY
The Prophet had a large family. He married twelve other wives
after the death of Khadijah. Most of them were widows, two of his
wives were Jewish, one was a Christian.
In those days, polygamy was prevalent. Islam restricted the
number of wives to four. In those days, when men were often killed
in battle the women who were left behind had to be looked after.
So taking several wives was like taking helpless refugees into one’s
home. They were treated kindly and generously. Muslim men were
encouraged to look after the widows of friends who had died in
battle, give them separate homes, and treat them equally in every
respect.
The Prophet’s wives shared his pious way of life. They made
great personal sacrifices, bearing patiently with all kinds of hardship
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
in the path of God. So they became known as the mothers of the
faithful. All the Prophet’s sons had died in infancy. But four
daughters borne by Khadijah survived infancy, grew to adulthood,
married and bore children. They were Fatimah, Umm Kulthum,
Ruqayyah and Zaynab.
JIHAD
The Prophet was a man of peace and reconciliation. He urged
his companions to ask God for peace. For the Prophet’s main task
was the communication of the divine message to the people. And
an atmosphere of peace and goodwill was essential to perform this
duty. But the Quraysh did not allow him to work in peaceful
conditions. When they saw that the Muslims were becoming
increasingly stronger, they resolved to wage war and crush them
altogether.
THE BATTLE OF BADR
The Quraysh marched to Madinah with a thousand strong
army. They camped at Badr, about eighty miles from Madinah. It
was the month of Ramadan, 2 A.H. On hearing the news of the
enemy camping at Badr, the Prophet marched out of Madinah at
the head of an army of 313 Muslims. There were few horses and
the Muslims had no armours. The Makkans, on the other hand,
were wel armed and had 300 horses and 700 camels.
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The battle, in which the Makkans were seriously outnumbered,
began on Friday the 17th of Ramadan. The fighting lasted only a
few hours, during which the Prophet prayed continuously for divine
succour. God then sent angels to help the Muslims who emerged
victorious. The Quraysh suffered a total rout.
The defeat, however, did not teach the Quraysh a lesson, but
further enraged them. Determined to wipe out the blot of this
humiliation, they now began preparations for a second attack, on a
much bigger scale. They raised an army of more than 3000
warriors and mad with revenge, marched to Madinah led by Abu
Sufyan.
The Battle of Uhud took place in 624 A.D. The enemy
numbered 3000 while the Prophet’s men numbered only 700. But
with God on their side, the Muslims successfully repulsed the
attack. The enemy started retreating, leaving behind large
quantities of booty. Victory was eminent for the Muslims, when
forty archers whom the Prophet had assigned to the hillside to
guard the pass, saw the retreating army and thought that if they
remained on the hill, they would lose their share of the booty.
Therefore most of them abandoned their posts. This left the way
open for a counter attack.
When Khalid bin Walid, stil a non-Muslim, saw the pass
undefended, he led his men behind the hill and killed the few
archers who still stood guard. Then he fell upon the Muslims from
the back. Seeing this, the fleeing Quraysh leaders turned back. The
Muslims were thrown into utter confusion. The Prophet himself
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was wounded. But the Muslims stood like a solid wall of stone
around the Prophet, and managed to repulse all attacks with
superhuman courage. Many fell dead and several wounded. They
had gone to the extent of sacrificing their lives to save the Prophet
from the enemy onslaught. Slowly the enemy was beaten back.
The Quraysh lost 14 men, while the Muslims lost 70. Among
the dead was Hamzah, the Prophet’s uncle. The Prophet grieved
over the loss of this brave soul. With deep sorrow the martyrs were
buried and the Muslims came back to Madinah.
The Quraysh knew at heart that the Muslims would have
emerged victorious, had not the fateful mistake of a few Muslims
had turned their victory into defeat. So for two years they made no
attempt to invade Makkah.
THE BATTLE OF THE TRENCH
The enemies and hypocrites had been plotting all this while.
They managed to bring together all the opponents of Islam. So
they were able to assemble a mighty force of 24,000. In the fifth
year of Hijrah, this large army started marching towards Madinah.
The Prophet came to know of the Jewish plot to exterminate the
Muslims. He consulted his companions. One of them, Salman
Farsi, a Persian, suggested that a defensive trench be dug around
Madinah. This strategy was used by the Sassanids on such
occasions. Three thousand men worked for twenty days to dig it.
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The allied forces of 10,000 marched to Madinah under the
command of Abu Sufyan. The Madinans numbered only 3,000.
The Makkan cavalry were stopped by the trench. However, they
had plenty of provisions and supplies so they decided to lay siege
to the city.
On the 27th day of the siege, a cyclone hit Madinah. For three
days and nights the storm continued bringing torrential rain.
All the tents were blown away and the provisions became
unusable due to the rain. Dissension in the army was gradually
growing. Discouraged, the Quraysh abandoned the siege.
TREATY OF HUDAYBIYYAH
The Prophet felt that war was not the solution. Therefore he
adopted another strategy. Guided by a dream, he left for Makkah
to perform Umrah accompanied by 1400 companions. He camped
at Hudaybiyyah, a short way from Makkah. It was a completely
peaceful march. But the Makkan leaders objected to it. They felt
that their prestige was damaged by the fact that the very people
who had been expelled by them from Makkah should come to the
city again and perform the rights of Umrah openly and in such
large numbers.
Now the Prophet halted at Hudaybiyyah and began negotiating
for peace with the Makkan leaders. The Quraysh finally agreed to
sign a peace treaty. However, at the Prophet’s suggestion, a clause
was included in it, specifying that for the next ten years no war
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
would take place between the Muslims and the Makkans. By the
terms of this treaty the Muslims were to go back without visiting
the Kabah. They were to come again the following year and stay in
Makkah for just three days.
The treaty appeared to be a victory for the Quraysh, for the
Prophet had unilaterally accepted all their conditions. But it soon
proved to be otherwise. Now there being no danger of war, people
were able to mix freely with any tribe they liked. This gave the non-
Muslims an opportunity to have a closer look at Islam. During this
period of free interaction, Islam became a subject of general
discussion. The call of Islam spread rapidly. The Arabs, impressed
by the virtues of Islam and began to enter its fold in large numbers.
Within the next two years the number of Muslims greatly increased.
CALL TO THE WORLD
Now that peace prevailed, the Prophet took full advantage of
the opportunities it afforded him. He sent his companions with
letters to the rulers and kings the borders of whose kingdoms were
contiguous with, or close to Arabia. The companions used to
deliver these letters to the rulers. – Iran, Byzantium, Abyssinia,
Egypt and Syria, amongst others. These letters contained the
fundamental teachings of Islam and the rulers were invited to
accept Islam.
Some of them, like Negus, the ruler of Abyssinia accepted
Islam, while others rejected it, but they accepted the letters
graciously and sent presents to the Prophet. Only the Emperor of
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2. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad
Iran, Khusro Parvez, tore the Prophet’s message apart in his
arrogance. He considered it below his dignity to accept such a
letter. When the Prophet received this news, he said: “The
Emperor of Persia has himself torn his Kingdom into pieces.” This
prediction was fulfilled during the rule of Caliph Umar, when Iran
came under Muslim rule.
FALL OF MAKKAH
Two years after the signing of this treaty, it was violated by the
Quraysh. The Prophet then announced that the peace agreement
had been revoked. Subsequently, on the 10th of Ramadan, he left
for Makkah accompanied by 10,000 companions. This march was
conducted in complete secrecy. Only when they encamped a few
miles from the city did the Makkans come to know of their arrival.
The Makkans were completely taken by surprise. Faced with this
numerical strength, the Makkans found themselves helpless.
Therefore they conceded their defeat without any resistance.
Makkah was thus conquered without any armed encounter. The
Muslims had strict orders to shed no blood. The Makkans were
told that they would be safe if they kept indoors or took refuge in
the Kabah or in Abu Sufyan’s house.
After the fall of Makkah the Kabah was purified of all the idols,
which had been placed in it. Then Bilal, the Negro companion of
the Prophet, went up on to the roof of the Kabah and gave the call
to prayer (Azan). Then the companions said the thanksgiving
prayer, led by the Prophet.
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PARDON FOR ALL
The Makkan leaders sat in the compound of the Kabah. They
were, without exception, the worst types of criminals. Therefore,
even if all of them had been put to death, the punishment would
have been fully justified. But the Prophet, being of a noble character,
did not take any action against them. He unilaterally declared a
general amnesty, saying: “Go, you are all free.”
The Makkan idolaters could hardly believe their ears. This
generous treatment meted out to the fallen foe won all hearts,
including those of the most bitter enemies of Islam. After the
conquest of their hearts, they had no choice but to embrace Islam.
All the insolent Makkans surrendered and joined the Prophet in his
mission as his companions. All opposition had just vanished.
BATTLE OF HUNAYN
The fall of Makkah was not taken kindly by all the tribes. The
Banu Thaqif and the Hawazin, who lived between Makkah and Taif,
were highly perturbed by the developments in Makkah. Sensing the
danger to their independence and supremacy, they turned
aggressive and collected a huge army. This army was encamped in
the valley of Hunayn, to which a narrow pass was the only
entrance.
Expert archers hid themselves behind rocky crags. The Prophet
arrived with an army of 12,000. The Muslims filed between the
narrow rocky walls of the pass, panicked under the sudden heavy
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rain of arrows from the hidden archers. About 11,000 of the
12,000 strong Muslim army turned and fled, for they were not at
all prepared for this sudden attack. But the Prophet and some of
his close companions showed no signs of panic, reposing their
entire trust in God. God sent His succour as promised. Thus,
despite the initial setback, the course of battle was altered. The
Muslims won an extraordinary victory. Six thousand members of
the Hawazin tribe were taken prisoner. They were proven war
criminals. According to the prevailing custom, they should al have
been put to death. But the Prophet pardoned them all and set
them free without setting any conditions.
This extraordinary and unexpected amnesty impressed these
insolent people so much that they all entered the fold of Islam.
After the conversion of the Hawazin tribe, the rebel Thaqif tribe of
Taif lost courage. Within one month they al surrendered and
embraced Islam.
FIRST HAJJ UNDER ISLAM
The first Hajj under Islam took place in the ninth year of Hijrah.
The Prophet himself did not lead it but sent Abu Bakr in his place.
The ninth year of Hijrah witnessed a rapid spread of Islam.
Representatives of tribes inhabiting far off parts of Arabia poured
into Madinah. They had a two-fold purpose—to convert to Islam
and to establish relations with the newly formed Islamic state.
These delegations came in such large numbers that it became
known as the year of delegations. In this way one after another all
the tribes of Arabia entered the fold of Islam.
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THE FAREWELL PILGRIMAGE
After having consolidated the power of Islam in Arabia, the
Prophet set out to perform Hajjatul wida, his Farewell Pilgrimage. It
was the last year of his life. He left Madinah for Makkah
accompanied by Madinan Muslims. When the news spread that the
Prophet was going to perform the pilgrimage, various tribes living
in Arabia began pouring into Makkah.
Therefore when the Prophet of Islam performed his first as well
as his last pilgrimage, he was joined by 125,000 Muslims. During
this pilgrimage the revelations about the rules of the Hajj were
given to him. These are followed by all Muslims to this day.
When the Prophet arrived at Mount Arafat he imparted some
teachings to the people present on that occasion. These are
preserved in the form of the ‘Final Sermon’.
During the Sermon of Arafat the last passage of the Quran was
revealed:
“Today I have perfected your religion for you, and I
have completed My blessings upon you; and I have
approved Islam as your religion.” (5:4-5)
This proved to be his last visit, that is why it came to be called
the “Farewell Pilgrimage.” Only three months after his return to
Madinah he fell il and, with the consent of all of his wives, stayed
in the house of Aishah. He had fever and headache. He remained
ill for about two weeks and breathed his last on 12 Rabiul Awwal
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10 A.H. He continued leading prayers till he became too weak to
go to the mosque. But before his death he said his last prayer in
the Masjid-e-Nabawi and made Abu Bakr, his closest companion,
the Imam of this prayer. This was a clear indication that he wanted
Abu Bakr to succeed him as the leader of the believers.
The Prophet died in the room attached to the Masjid-e-
Nabawi. He was buried in the same place. Later when Abu Bakr
and Umar died, they were also buried to the right and left sides of
the Prophet.
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3. The Concept of Worship in Islam
3. THE CONCEPT OF WORSHIP IN
ISLAM
WORSHIP, according to the Quran, is the sole purpose of the
creation of man. The Quran says:
“I have not created jinn and mankind except to worship
Me.” (51:56).
There are a number of verses in the Quran, which elaborate on
how the prophets were sent to this world for this very purpose.
(16:36, 2:21, 4:36, 21:25). According to Islam, all individuals
should lead lives of worship and devotion to God.
The dictionary defines worship as bowing before someone and
humbling oneself. “The essence of worship is fearfulness and
humility,” says Lisan al-Arab. The dictionary meaning of the word
is also its canonical meaning. Abu Hayyan says: “Prayer means
humility: this is the consensus of religious scholars” (al Bahr al
Muhit, Vol. 1, p. 23). That is why the Qur’an uses the word
“arrogance” as the antonym of worship.
Although worship’s real connotations are humility and
fearfulness, when the word is used in relation to God, it also
includes the concept of love. Ibn Kathir writes: “According to the
dictionary, worship stands for lowliness… In the Islamic Shari’ah it
is used to express a condition of extreme love coupled with
extreme humbleness and apprehension.” (Tafsir al Qur’an, Vol. 1,
p. 25) Iman Ibn Taimiyah says: “The word ‘Ubudiyat (adoring
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3. The Concept of Worship in Islam
enslavement) expresses a mixture of extreme humility and extreme
love.” (The Pamphlet on Ubudiyah, p. 28) Hafiz Ibn Qayyem also
writes. “There are two components of worship: extreme love and
extreme humility” (Tafsir ibn Qayyem, p. 65).
The essence of worship then is to adopt an attitude of lowliness
and humility before God. In the Qur’an, this is expressed by
different words, such as Khashiyyah, Tadhurru, Ikhbat, Inabat,
Khushu, Khudu and Qunut, etc. To worship God means utter
prostration of oneself before Him. The Being before whom the act
of worship is performed is no tyrant but an extremely kind Being,
to whom we owe limitless blessings. So this expression of lowliness
before Him is tinged with love.
The concept of Ibadah entails that one should first realise his
relation to God. The relation of man to God is the relation of the
humblest creature to an extremely beloved Being. Man shivers in
awe of God but, at the same time, he draws closer to Him in great
expectations. For the fear of God is not of the kind produced by
the sight of a fearful object. It is rather a feeling of extreme hope
and extreme apprehension. It is a situation of love and fear in
which man runs towards the very Being he fears, in the hope of
receiving from Him His divine blessings.
According to the Quran, the essence of worship is to be God-
fearing.
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“O men, serve your Lord who has created you and
those who have gone before you, so that you may
guard yourselves against evil.’ (2:21)
When a believer has developed this strong attachment to God,
he reaches a state of deep realisation enabling him to experience
the presence of God. The Prophet has been reported as saying:
“Pray to God as if you are seeing Him.” (Mishkat,
Chapter on Faith).
According to this saying, the most sublime form of worship is
that in which the worshipper is so lost in thoughts of God that he
finds himself very close to Him. His apprehension of the divine
presence should be as keen as if God were actually visible. This
state of psychological proximity is the most sublime achievement of
prayer. All rites of worship are aimed at arriving at that state.
So the aim of our worship is to enter into a relationship with
God “and” reach God. To find God thus in this life is the highest
reality of religion.
THE IMPLICATION OF WORSHIP
What God desires of man, first and foremost, is that he display
humility in His presence. It is this attitude, which is called worship.
But man has not been created in a vacuum. He has rather been
placed in a world full of diverse circumstances. If the believer has
truly surrendered his being before God, then this spirit will
manifest itself in his dealings with everyone he comes in contact
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with. This submission, a manifestation of true worship can be
divided into two categories: the individual and the collective.
Individual obedience means obeying God in those matters
which are related to his personal life. It covers all those
commandments which pertain to morals and dealings with man,
like speaking the truth, keeping one’s promises, being honest and
trustworthy, upholding justice, being a well-wisher of all, etc.
All this involves surrendering to the will of God in
one’s personal affairs. (33:36).
This individual obedience is an obligation for every
believer. He has to mould his external life entirely on
the pattern indicated by God. (2:208)
The second category of commandments, called Ita’ah
(submission), may be termed social commandments. These can be
carried out only when the whole of society is willing to obey them.
That is why such commandments have always been sent by God
only when the believers had already established a political
organisation among themselves. Because only then are they in a
position to enforce such social laws. That is why social laws are
addressed to any Muslim society, which is invested with authority,
rather than to individuals who have no political power. We find that
during the Makkan period only the basic part of the Shariah was
revealed. The rest of the Shariah continued to be revealed
according to the circumstances. These laws are directed only at
those groups of believers who are in a position to carry them out.
As we learn from the Quran:
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“God does not charge a soul with more than it can
bear.” (2:286).
FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM
In order to enable man to successful y carry out this life-long,
life-giving duty, the Quran and Hadith have designed a preparatory
action plan known as the Five Pillars of Islam.
After belief in God and the Prophet, four practices enjoy the
status of pillars of Islam—fasting, prayers, zakah (almsgiving) and
the hajj (pilgrimage to Makkah).
Abdullah ibn Umar said that the Messenger of Allah said:
“The foundation of Islam has been laid on five
principles: to bear witness that there is no God but
Allah and that Muhammad, may peace be upon him, is
His Prophet; to offer prayers (salah); to give alms
(zakah); to perform the Hajj and to keep the fast during
Ramadan.”
These five principles form the pillars of Islam. Just as a house
stands on pillars, so does Islamic faith on these tenets. However,
the performance of these rituals is not all that is desired. What is
much more important is the true spirit in which these are
performed. Without the spirit the form is meaningless. All these
different observances–faith, prayer, fasting, charity, pilgrimage–are
not mere rituals, but are the source of receiving the choicest divine
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blessings. Faith, the most important of all is, in essence, belief in
the truth of divine realities.
Prayer is an exercise in physical and mental prostration before
God, aimed at banishing all notions of personal greatness. Fasting
teaches one to be steadfast in one’s trust of God. Charity entails
the recognition of others’ claims upon one, so that one shall not
forfeit one’s own share in God’s bounty. The Pilgrimage serves to
unite God’s servants around their Maker.
THE SPIRIT OF FAITH
One is required to testify to one’s faith, in the oneness of God
and the prophethood of Muhammad. But its spirit lies in its
acceptance. Through this article of faith a man accepts God and all
His attributes. He also accepts that God sent Muhammad, may
peace be upon him, to this world as the eternal guide for all
mankind. If this reality reaches one’s heart, it becomes a part of
one’s being. One’s heart opens to the truth and reality.
There are seven things, which are essential for a Muslim to
believe in. These come under the heading of Iman Mufassal, a
detailed declaration of faith. They are to believe in one God, in His
angels, in His revealed Books, in all of His messengers, in the Last
Day (the Day of Judgement), in Taqdir (the doctrine of
predestination which means that everything good or bad is decided
by God) and in the Life after Death.
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A true believer is required not only to testify to his faith by
word of mouth (Shahadah bil Lisan) but also to accept it with all his
heart and soul.
THE SPIRIT OF SALAH
The spirit of these daily five prayers is humility. One who bows
before his Creator in the true spirit will be devoid of pride and ego.
The prayers are prescribed for five times throughout the day—at
daybreak, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and evening. The prayers
consist of recitations from the Quran and glorification of God.
These are accompanied by a sequence of movements: standing,
bowing, kneeling, touching the ground with one’s forehead, and
sitting. Worshippers face the Kabah while offering the prayers.
Muslims have been advised in the Quran to be steadfast in their
prayer (29:45) for prayer keeps away indecency and evil. One who
performs his prayer in its true spirit cannot become forgetful of
God after his prayer is over. The actions of prayer are a
manifestation of the fact that one’s heart is ful of fear and love for
God. Therefore, if prayers are said in their true spirit, one’s prayer
will surely fend off indecency and evil and, by purifying the
worshipper’s soul, serve to bring him closer to God.
THE SPIRIT OF FASTING
The Arabic term for fasting is ‘Sawm’ which means to abstain.
It is aimed at detaching oneself from the world and devoting one’s
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life entirely to God (73:8). The outer sign of fasting is the
abstention from food from morning till evening. But in its essence
it is to withdraw from all worldly attachments, and reduce all
mundane necessities to a minimum.
This fasting aims at weakening the material aspect of man and
strengthening the spirituality in him. Man is made up of body and
soul. Just as the body requires physical nourishment, so must the
soul be nourished spiritually. To be sure, fasting results in physical
discomfort. But God has nothing to gain from causing human
beings unnecessary trouble and man has to satisfy his material
needs; but if he wants to discover the truth it is essential, at least
for a few fixed days, to retire from the material world in order to
develop the spiritual part in him, so that he will be able to attain
spirituality.
THE SPIRIT OF ZAKAH
Zakah, in reality, is a form of sacrifice meant to underlie those
ethical values, which are known in Islam as Huququl Ibad, that is,
fulfillment of one’s responsibilities towards others. Thus the spirit
of Zakah is the service of mankind.
It requires an annual contribution of 2.5 percent of an
individual’s wealth and assets, not merely a percentage of his
annual income. In Islam, the true owner of things is not man but
God. People are given their wealth as a trust from God. Therefore,
Zakah, far from being viewed as “charity,” is an obligation—for
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those who have received their wealth from God—to help the less
weaker members of the community:
“...the poor, orphans, and widows, to free slaves and
debtors, and to support those working for the cause of
God.” (9:60).
(For further details see the chapter on social welfare).
THE SPIRIT OF HAJJ
The root meaning of the word, “Hajj” is to set out or to make a
pilgrimage. Canonically it has come to refer to the act of worship
performed annually in the month of Dhul Hijjah, the twelfth month
of the Islamic calendar.
At least once in his or her lifetime, every adult Muslim who is
physically and financially able is required to make the sacrifice of
time, money, comforts, becoming a pilgrim totally at God’s service.
The pilgrims wear simple garments, two seamless white clothes
for men and a dress that entirely covers the body, except the face
and hands, for women. These coverings symbolise purity as well as
the unity and equality of all believers.
Some important rituals to be performed during the Hajj are as
follows:
— Tawaf (circumambulation), i.e. going round the Kabah
seven times.
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— Saee: the pilgrims undertake a brisk walk between Safa and
Marwah, two hillocks near the Kabah.
— Standing on Arafat: the pilgrims gather at Arafat and pray
to God throughout the day, reciting the Talbiyah. This
standing on the 9th day of Dhul Hijjah is very important.
According to tradition, standing at Arafat is the culmination
of the pilgrimage.
It was at Arafat that the Prophet delivered his farewell sermon
to his people from the Mount of Mercy, a hill in the middle of the
plane.
Among all Muslim acts of worship, Hajj holds a pre-eminent
position. In one Hadith, the Prophet called it “the supreme act of
worship.” But it is not just the rites of pilgrimage that constitute
this importance; it is the spirit in which Hajj is performed. Hajj has
been prescribed so that it may inspire us with a new religious
fervour. To return from Haj with one’s faith in God strengthened
and rekindled – that is the hallmark of a true pilgrim. Hajj reigns
supreme among all acts of devotion. Just as the Sacred Mosque in
Makkah has a station above all other mosques, so the worship that
is performed there as part of the pilgrimage stands head and
shoulders above all other acts of devotion.
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4. The Concept of the State in Islam
4. THE CONCEPT OF THE STATE IN
ISLAM
IN order to explain the concept of the state in Islam, I would like to
quote some of the relevant verses from the Quran.
Say: “O God! Lord of Power, You give power to whom
You please, and You take away power from whom You
please.” (3:26).
Some points are made here very clearly: one being that the
actual possessor of power is God and that it is He who grants
power on earth to whom He wants and who takes away power from
whomsoever He wants. So the whole matter in this regard rests
with God. If someone receives power, it is not due to his own
effort: it is given to him by God alone. Similarly, when power is
taken away from him, it is done by God alone.
Thus the dominance or subjugation of any group is ultimately
for God to decide. According to this verse, no human being has
any power whatsoever. The theory that comes to light is that
political power is totally governed by God, just as the entire
universe is running in accordance with the divine plan. It is like
saying that God alone is the controller of the universe and that He
alone has the final word as to who is going to be given political
power. Just as God exercises full power over the setting and rising
of the sun, so also has He full power over the granting of political
ascendancy.
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This is an incontrovertible fact. There is another verse in this
connection, which throws further light on the subject:
“And He will bestow upon you other blessings which
you desire; help from God and a speedy victory.”
(61:13).
In this verse “other blessings” mean political power. This has
been characterised as something secondary. When we take this
verse in its literal sense, it transpires that the status of political
power has a secondary rather than a primary position in Islam.
Primary position is given to the purification of the self through
intellectual and spiritual development.
Another point made clear in this verse is that the receiving of
political power depends solely upon divine succour. Victory and
defeat apparently belong to the human world, but both are total y
governed by God. From these verses it emerges clearly that
political power is a promise from God, and not a target. That is, it
is not something that Muslims should aim at, for they can receive it
only by divine edict.
Another point that we learn from this verse is that power is not
granted to any group simply because of its struggle to that end,
but rather on the fulfillment of two specific conditions. The Quran
makes it clear that true faith and virtuous character alone are the
deciding factors in receiving political power.
What is meant by faith is that the group who is to be the
recipient of political power should have undergone the intellectual
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and spiritual revolution cal ed Iman (Faith) in the Quran, that is,
they should evince absolute trust in God, total submission to the
Prophet, full conviction on the existence of the angels, of the
Hereafter, of hell and heaven; in short, they should display a keen
desire to mould their lives in accordance with the spirit of the
Quran. When such qualities of faith are produced within a group,
the time will come for it to be considered by God for the grant of
political power. Good deeds necessarily entail ful conformance to
the divine commands regarding worship, moral character and the
upholding of justice. In the words of the Quran, our lives should be
wholly dyed in God’s hue. When this quality of good character has
been developed in the majority of the people only then is political
power given to that group by God’s command.
Then there is another verse in this connection, which throws
further light on the subject. This is in the context of the granting of
political power to the Prophet Solomon. The words uttered by the
Prophet Solomon after receiving power was ‘Leblanc’ (This is
meant as a test). These words tell us that political power is given in
order to try us. The test contrives to separate the grateful from the
insolent servants of God (27:40).
Thus, according to the Quran, the nature of political power in
this world is exactly the same as that of other things. That is, when
an individual is given wealth, offspring or anything of a material or
worldly nature like success, all that is designed to test him. All
these blessings serve as test papers. Thus political power is also a
test paper.
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Therefore, according to the Quran whoever receives power
should realise that power is given to him in order to test him. It is
not something to take pride in, nor is it merely a matter of being a
gift from God.
The concept of the State that emerges from these verses of the
Quran make it clear that political power is not the target or goal of
our activities or actions. Rather it is the result of some other set of
actions. That is to say, according to the Quran, the objectives of
our struggle should be faith and good character. These conditions
have to be fulfil ed and only then can a group be blessed with
political power by God, if He so desires. We might say, by way of
analogy, that the position of faith is that of the seed and the
position of power is that of the fruit.
According to the Quran, the whole matter can be likened to a
tree. The position of the seed in this example is that of action and
the position of the fruit is that of receiving the reward of that
action. In this way those who sow the seed of Faith and good
deeds may receive political power as a gift from God.
We must then consult the Quran and Sunnah as to what is the
structure of political power in Islam. In the Quran, the first
principle that comes before us is in the form of approbation of:
“those who conduct their affairs by mutual
consultation.” (42:38).
This verse alludes to a basic principle of conduct so far as the
political structure of Islam is concerned. This shows that the
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political system of Islam is based on mutual adjustment, this being
one of the most important social principles of Islam, which is
equally desirable both prior to and after receiving political power.
It is noteworthy that this verse enjoining Muslims to settle their
affairs by consultation was revealed in Makkah, whereas Muslims
received political power only in Madinah after their migration. The
revelation of this verse in Makkah shows that this principle of
consultation is an all-time social principle. The practical proof of
this principle at all times is made clear by the fact that whenever
any social problems arose, the Prophet would always call his
companions for consultation.
Therefore we find in the books of Seerah (the Prophet’s
biography) a number of examples, which begin with these words:
“O people, give me advice.”
After the death of the Prophet in Madinah in 632, Abu Bakr
Siddiq was appointed as a leader of the believers, and first
successor of the Prophet. Events tell us that the Prophet was of the
opinion that this task of leadership should go to Abu Bakr, but he
never nominated the latter, nor did he prepare a will.
There were, however, certain indications during his lifetime of
his wishes. For instance, the task of congregational prayer is such
as performed only by the head of the State. That is why the
Prophet of Islam used to lead the prayer himself. For, according to
Islam, the Imam of the mosque should be one who is the leader of
the political institution, or he could be one appointed by the head
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of the State as his deputy. It is significant that the Prophet of Islam
made Abu Bakr lead the prayer several times. This stand of the
Prophet was to make it clear to the people that the appointment of
the leader of the believers should be in accordance with the
opinion of the people and not by appointment. That is why after his
death, when the companions gathered together at Saqifa Bani
Saeda, an assembly hall in Madinah, Abu Bakr was appointed the
successor of the Prophet, after a long consultation. Although the
Islamic system is democratic in its nature it would be more
appropriate to say that democracy in Islam is indirect democracy
rather than direct. That is to say, the entire public is not consulted
in the Islamic democratic system. Instead we find different methods
in that golden period of Islam known as the Pious Caliphate. None
of the caliphs of this period were appointed after consulting the
public. Only the senior people available in Madinah were
consulted.
This pattern was adopted concerning the appointment of all the
four caliphs. With these standard examples during the pious
caliphate before us, we should not be wrong in saying that the
democratic system of Islam is almost the same as what is called
indirect democracy in the jargon of today.
This system entailed selecting a central body after seeking the
opinion of the public. This body then selected the caliph. That is
why certain scholars have called this method being based on Arbab
hallo Aqd, that is, the intellectuals, the leaders, those who have a
say in society are responsible for selecting the caliph or their
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leader. That is to say that this decision-making body will be formed
by public opinion and this body in turn wil be entrusted with the
task of selecting the leader.
We gather from our study that the political structure of Islam is
not an unchangeable, rigid structure but has sufficient flexibility to
suit the circumstances. For instance, the selection of Abu Bakr at
Saqifa Bani Saeda took place after a discussion among the
companions, while Umar Faruq was appointed by Abu Bakr Siddiq,
the leader of the believers himself, during his last days. Then the
third caliph was selected by a six member board nominated by
caliph Umar. So far as the selection of the fourth Caliph is
concerned, it took place in an emergency situation, due to the
murder of the third caliph Uthman; the circumstances did not allow
holding normal discussions. Therefore a group of Muslims
declared Ali ibn Abi Talib to be the fourth Caliph and the Muslim
community accepted his Caliphate. Then during the Umayyad
period Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (8th Umayyad Caliph), who is known
as the fifth pious caliph was selected as caliph. His election took
place in the following manner. The preceding caliph Sulayman ibn
Abdul Malik, had left his will in a sealed envelope with instructions
that it should be opened only after his death. So this letter was
opened in the mosque of Damascus after his demise.
This announcement was made by Reja ibn Haywa, who was
appointed by Sulayman to read out this wil to the large number of
people gathered in the mosque. It was an official announcement of
the nomination of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz as caliph. But Umar ibn
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Abdul Aziz declared it publicly that he was returning this
nomination to the people and it was up to them to choose
whomsoever they wanted. At this turn of events, all the people
gathered in the mosque chorussed: “We accept you as our caliph.”
Only after this general consent did Umar accept the caliphate.
The first phase of Islamic history is known as the golden phase.
There is no doubt about it that consultation is an established
practice in Islam and we see this from the precedent set in this
golden period. Yet there is a high degree of flexibility in the
principle of consultation in Islam. It is not a hard and fast rule.
That is why we find that all the five caliphs were appointed by
different methods. Then another fact is that the area of this
principle of flexibility in Islamic democracy is very vast. As we see
during the Umayyad period, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the founder
of the Umayyad Caliphate, nominated his son to succeed him. This
was clearly the way of kingship or dynastic rule, going patently
against the precedents set in the golden period. But this method
introduced by Muawiyah became so common that it was adopted
by almost all the succeeding caliphs right from Muawiyah to
Aurangzeb. Yet the Islamic scholars in general accepted their
caliphates giving them their silent approval. This shows that there
is great flexibility in the Islamic concept of democracy based on
consultation.
This flexibility goes to the extent of even accepting dynastic
kingship, if circumstances demand it. As for the governments
established on the principle of dynastic rule, the scholars held the
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view that a government’s fulfilling its social, economic and religious
responsibilities was more important than this or that political
structure.
That is why in later history we find that although the Muslim
scholars did not react to this dynastic rule, they did speak out
openly about their responsibilities towards social justice.
The religious scholars (Ulama) never shirked their role of
reminding the kings of their social duty. Most of the scholars
refrained from accepting any government post so that they might
not have to yield to any undue pressure. They thought that by
remaining independent they would be able to play their role of
censuring the policies of the government and of reminding the
rulers of their duties. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi, known as Mujaddid
Alf Sani, provides an excel ent example of what role the religious
scholars had to play to keep the kings in check.
That is why in later periods of Islamic history, when dynastic
rule had become the order of the day among the Muslims, the
rulers, more or less, could not deviate far from the Islamic
principles of justice. For instance, the ruler had to come to the
mosque to pray with the public, he had to spend the money of the
Treasury to fulfill the requirements of the public, he had to
discharge his religious responsibilities and see to it that the public
had no difficulty in discharging its religious rites. Anyone could
approach the kings to register his or her complaint. And there was
a proper arrangement by the government for the free religious
education of the people, etc.
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From our study of the Quran, Hadith and Islamic history, we
come to this conclusion:
1. The position of political rule in Islam is not that of the
target of action, but is rather the result of action. That is to
say, fulfilling the criteria of faith and good deeds alone
makes one deserving of political power.
2. There is no hard and fast rule for the political structure in
Islam. Rather we find great flexibility.
3. Although there may be adjustment so far as the political
structure is concerned, there can be no adjustment or
concession so far as the Islamic spirit is concerned.
4. According to the study of the hadith, our actions towards
political reform wil be limited to the giving of advice, i.e.
by peaceful means. This wil never go to the extent of
launching violent movements aimed at ousting the rulers.
As the traditions have it: “When you find corruption among
the rulers, you must pay your due and ask your due from
God. It is as if the principle of Jesus Christ is also accepted
in Islam:
“Render therefore to Caesar the things that are
Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.”
(Luke: 20:26).
The Quran tells us: “God enjoins you to do justice.” This
justice in its basic sense, pertains to individual character. It
demands that everyone in his personal life should develop a
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character based on justice. When the number of these just people
grows into a large group, then they desire to lead their lives based
on justice at the congregational or social level. Thus when this
social life manifests itself in the form of an organised social
institution, it is called the state in Islamic terminology. This action
(the desire to lead a just life) will be cal ed just character from the
individual point of view and this same action at the social level will
be the mainspring of the just state.
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5. The Status of Woman in Islam
5. THE STATUS OF WOMAN IN ISLAM
A study of the Quran and Hadith tells us that in Islam a woman
enjoys the same status as that of a man. The Quran says:
“You are members, one of another.” (3:195)
There is no difference between the two as regards status, rights
and blessings both in this world and in the Hereafter.
1. The first verse that we find in the Quran on this subject is as
follows:
‘Mankind, fear your Lord who created you from one
soul and created man’s mate from the same soul, from
these two scattering on earth many men and women.
Fear God, in whose name you entreat one another, and
be careful not to sever your ties of kinship, God is
watching over what you do.’ (4:1)
This verse of the Quran tells us that God has created man
and woman from the same soul, that is, from the same
substance. The entire human race has come from Adam and
Eve, the first man and the first woman. Looked at in this way
human beings on this earth are blood brothers and blood sisters.
2. Another verse of the Quran reads:
It is He who created you from a single soul and made
from him his mate so that he might find comfort in her.
(7:89)
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This verse stresses the aspect of commonness between
man and woman (what is common between the two) that is,
both are a source of comfort to one another.
The word ‘comfort’ relates to al the activities of life,
meaning thereby that God has created men and women in such
a way that they assist one another in all matters of life, in order
to go on life’s journey peacefully and successful y.
3. There is another verse in the Quran, which tells us that men
and women have equal status in God’s eye. None is superior to
the other.
“I will not let the deeds of any doer among you go to
waste, be he male or female. You are members, one of
another.” (3:195)
Abdullah Yusuf Ali, the well known commentator on the
Quran, remarks in his commentary on this verse:
“In Islam the equal status of the sexes is not only
recognised but insisted on. If sex distinction, which is a
distinction in nature, does not count in spiritual
matters, artificial distinctions, such as rank, wealth,
position, race, colour, birth, etc., would count even less.”
Thus it wil be the very same virtues in thought, word and
deed, which will be prerequisites for both sexes to enter
Paradise. If the qualities of piety, humility, honesty, patience
and compassion are demanded of men, they will in like
measure be demanded of women.
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4. There is a hadith, which also explains that “women are the
other half of men.” That is, they are equal halves of one
another.
5. The Quran says that men are in charge of, that is, ‘maintainers’
of women (4:34). This does not mean that men have a
distinctive status over women. Then being maintainers of
women has never been intended as a form of discriminatory
treatment. It rather concerns the practical management of the
home, for which the man is held responsible. However, this
does not mean that a woman will never be al owed to shoulder
these responsibilities. If she finds that she can bear this burden,
no objection will be raised from any quarter. One example of
this can be found in the Quran with reference to the people of
Sheba. They lived in Yemen. The famous dam of Marib made
their country very prosperous and enabled it to attain a high
degree of civilization. The Quran tells us that they were ruled
by a woman (27:23) without disapproving of her rule. Bilqis,
the Queen of Sheba was very wise and sagacious, even more
so than the men in her court. She did not want to embroil
her country in war, while the men advised her to confront
her enemies, namely, Solomon’s army. Abdullah Yusuf Ali
writes:
“In Bilqis we have a picture of womanhood, gentle,
prudent, and able to tame the wilder passions of her
subjects.”
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It is an accepted principle with the commentators of the
Quran that when the Quran reports something without any
disapproval, that means that has been approved of by the
Quran.
So when we look at this incident in the light of the Quran,
we find the status of woman even higher than that of men. A
woman is in charge of men and she has shouldered this
responsibility with greater efficacy.
Thus the example of the Queen of Sheba having found
mention in the Quran shows that rulership is not man’s
monopoly. A woman can be a ‘qawwam’ over a man and the
Quran has itself testified to it.
HIJAB IN ISLAM
Now the question arises as to the concept of veil in Islam.
Nasiruddin Al-Albani, a famous scholar and traditionist, has written
a book titled Hijab al-Mar’ah al Muslimah fil Kitab was Sunnah.
The author has discussed the subject in the light of the Quran and
Hadith. He says that whenever she steps out of her home it is
incumbent upon her ‘to cover herself completely so as not to show
any apart of her body except the face and the hands. According to
his findings the following rules of Hijab must be observed by a
woman:
1. The whole body, except for the exempted parts should be
covered.
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5. The Status of Woman in Islam
2. But any veil, which in itself becomes an attraction, is to be
avoided.
3. Garments should not be semi-transparent.
4. Dress should not be tight-fitting.
The first rule of Hijab has been derived from Chapter 24, Verse
31. Allama Nasiruddin Albani interprets the wording “to cover
their adornments except such as are normally displayed,” to mean
that the hands and face are exempt from covering.
He has drawn extensively from the Hadith in support of his
argument. After studying the traditions in connection with the
Quranic verses (24:31, 33:59) he writes: “It is clear from the
instances drawn from the Quran and the Hadith that though it is
preferable for a woman to cover her face, it is not compulsory for
her to do so.
“It would be better if women followed this practice, but there is
no harm if they do not.” He concludes his argument with these
words: “The garment should cover the entire body of a woman
except the face and hands, and should not become an attraction in
itself. Neither should it be thin or tight. It should not accentuate
the body.
Maulana Shabbir Usmani, the well-known Indian commentator
on the Quran gives the following commentary on this verse of the
Quran:
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“It is evident from the Hadith and athar (the sayings
and deeds of the Prophet’s companions) that the face
and hands are exempt, because it is not possible to
keep them covered while performing the various chores
of daily life and even religious rites. If they are ordered
to be strictly covered, it will create great difficulties for
women in carrying out their jobs. The theologians have
considered the feet also to be exempted parts.”
This exemption of face, hands and feet, derived from verse 31
of chapter 24 is extremely important. This shows that Islam does
not intend to stop women from going out to receive education or
to work but rather desires them to observe the Islamic culture
known as Hijab. Hijab requires a dress, which properly covers the
body, for she is obliged to observe the rules of modesty.
Another important matter concerning women is education. A
study of the life of the Prophet of Islam tells us that education is as
essential for women as it is for men. The actual goal of education
from the Islamic point of view is to make him or her an aware
person. And without doubt it is only aware men and women who
can conduct the practical matters of life smoothly.
We find an example in this connection in the life of the Prophet
of Islam in relation to his wife Aishah. There are such traditions as
tell us that the Prophet’s conversations with Aishah were aimed at
educating her. Aishah says that when the Prophet of Islam would
get up at night after a few hours to sleep, in that peaceful
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atmosphere he would converse with her over a long period of time.
(Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim)
This course of informal education continued uninterruptedly,
for Aishah used to accompany him even on his journeys.
This informal education was so important for Aishah that she
became the most distinguished personality so far as religious
knowledge was concerned. She survived the Prophet for a full fifty
years. Throughout this period she remained a very valuable source
for the acquisition of religious knowledge. Her house served as a
school of religious learning.
In the early period of Islam, regarded as model for all believers,
we have a number of examples that show that women used to take
part in practical matters. For instance Khadijah, the Prophet’s wife,
conducted business, and Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter helped
with giving first aid to the wounded in battle. Asma, Abu Bakr’s
daughter, looked after her camels and date orchard, etc.
Western civilization believes in gender equality, that is man and
woman are one and the same thing. There is no difference of any
kind between the two. But Islam regards this equality as unnatural.
In the light of Islamic teachings men and women both are, without
doubt, equal. In God’s eyes, both have equal rights and duties.
Owing to their biological structure, however, they are different
from one another. That is to say, they are equal but different.
The characteristics of true believers, both men and women, are
referred to in the Quran in these words:
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“Those .... who are devout, sincere, patient, humble,
charitable and chaste, who fast and are even mindful of
God - on these both men and women, God will bestow
forgiveness and a rich reward.” (33:35)
These are the attributes, which both men and women must
cultivate if they want to become God’s favoured servants. These
are the qualities that form the basis of Islam, and are the true
means of salvation in the Hereafter.
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6. War and Peace in Islam
6. WAR AND PEACE IN ISLAM
IN order to appreciate the position of war and peace in Islam,
we have to answer another question concerning the goal of Islam.
What is the actual plan of Islam regarding human life? To answer
this question we have to refer to the Quran, the source of Islamic
teachings:
1. Chapter 103 of the Quran, titled Al-Asr, is regarded as the
essence of Islamic teachings. It reads:
“I swear by the declining day that perdition shall be the
lot of man, except for those who believe and do good
deeds, and exhort one another to truth and to
patience.”
From these verses in the Quran we find that success
depends on four things. That is, one should have faith in God,
possess right beliefs, observe Islam ful y, adopt Islamic ideology
wholeheartedly, and lead a life of virtuous action and God-
consciousness. We should accept the standard set by God in
regard to the truth and untruth.
Not only we should adopt all these beliefs and practices in
our own lives but we should also enjoin upon others truth and
forbearance as a matter of religious duty.
2. There is another verse in the Quran:
“God enjoins justice, kindness and charity to one’s
kindred, and forbids indecency, wickedness and
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oppression. He admonishes you so that you may take
heed.” (16:90)
Because of the importance of this verse, the fifth pious caliph
issued instructions that it should be made a part of the Friday
sermon.
This verse tel s us how human beings are supposed to lead
their lives in this world. The first thing, which is most important, is
to deal justly. That is, whatever right one has over another person
should be fulfilled. People should learn of the needs of their
relatives as wel as other fel ow human beings and spend their
money to fulfill their needs. They should not indulge in such things
as are disapproved of in society. They should not adopt the way of
arrogance and haughtiness. They should not only refrain from evil
deeds themselves, but should also persuade others to do the same.
There are a number of such verses as make it clear that war
and violence are alien to the scheme of Islam. In fact, they have
nothing to do with the kind of man Islam wants to build. It is
entirely based on bringing about a revolution in thought, and aims
at building a personality based on moral values. Man has to be
wholly imbued with the divine hue. However, another question
relates to the fact that human beings lead their lives in a society.
Social life repeatedly produces mutual conflicts. Everyone thinks
differently, everyone’s interests clash with those of others and these
differences sometimes escalate to war and violence.
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In such a situation the question is how to deal with the problem
of differences and controversies.
The teaching of Islam in this matter is that on all such
occasions our best efforts should be aimed at defusing the
controversy in its initial stage, it should not be allowed to reach the
stage of violent clash and confrontation scheme to war. This is
indeed a strategy to avoid a war from taking place. There are a
number of ways of such avoidance.
The first way, as the Quran tells us, is to “avoid the ignorant”.
(7:199) That is, instead of clashing with them one must adopt the
policy of avoidance. Another word that the Quran uses for this is
patience. The Quran goes to the extent of according patience the
status of worship:
Those that endure with fortitude shal be requited
without measure. (39:10)
Sabr means avoidance of retaliatory activities, in spite of
provocation from the other party. This patient attitude has been
held to be deserving of the choicest blessings from God. This
Quranic teaching of patience and avoidance has been explained by
a companion of the Prophet in these words: “One who will not
tolerate minor evil perpetrated by an ignorant person will have to
tolerate a major evil.” This means that whenever there is any
provocation from antagonists, at that time an individual or a nation
has one of two choices: that the provocation should be avoided in
the very first instance and not allowed to reach the extent of war
and violence, so that the lesser evil is nipped in the bud. In this
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matter we find a very important principle in Islam in a hadith
narrated by Aishah, the Prophet’s wife. While describing the
general policy of the Prophet of Islam she said that whenever the
Prophet of Islam had to opt for one of two ways he would always
opt for the easier option and discard the harder one. In all
controversial situations between two parties, attempts to solve the
problem should be made only in the peaceful sphere. Taking the
second option means attempting to solve the problem of ‘guns’
with ‘bombs’. It is this second option, which turns conflicts into war.
The life of the Prophet of Islam tells us that he adopted this
method, called the easier option by Aishah, throughout his entire
life. At least a hundred times he had to face the confrontation
produced by his opponents, but he always opted for the way of the
easier option. He could almost always avoid any head-on clash by
peaceful strategy. That is why we find that between the Prophet
and his opponents collisions took place only three times: at the
battles of Badr, Uhud and Hunayn.
Although many incidents have been termed “battles” in the
books of seerah, on examining them closely we find that these are
only different forms of avoidance and not of indulgence in war. For
instance, we find in the books of Seerah the names of battles like
Ghazwa-e-Tabuk, Ghazwa-e-Khandaq, Ghazwa-e-Makka, Ghazwa
Hamraul Asad, whereas in all these battles and a number of other
such battles the Prophet always succeeded in managing to avoid
war by employing some strategy or the other. So we can safely
conclude that peace is the rule in Islam and war is only a rare
exception.
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Now the question arises as to why, in the first place, there is
the injunction to wage war in Islam and why the Prophet had to go
to war with his opponents three times. We learn from the Quran
that so far as the matter is confined to mere provocation or an
insignificant loss the way of patience and avoidance must be
adopted. But when the other party initiates the aggression, then at
that time war can be waged in defence. The first principle in this
regard is that which we learn from the Quran:
“So long as they are straight with you, be straight with
them.” (9:7)
This means that so long as your adversary has not initiated
aggression and has not compel ed you to wage war, you should live
with him peaceful y, never initiating aggression under any
circumstance. The constructive goals of Islam can be achieved only
when there are friendly relations between Muslims and non-
Muslims, that is why this injunction has been given in the Quran.
This shows that fighting in Islam is permitted only when there is
simply no other option. That is why the verse which gives Muslims
permission to fight in self-defence, is given in these words:
Permission to fight is given to those who are attacked,
because they have been wronged. God will certainly
help those who help Him. (22:39)
Similarly, at another place the Quran says:
“Fight in the name of God those who fight you, but do
not go beyond the limits. God does not love the
transgressors.” (2:190).
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6. War and Peace in Islam
At yet another place the Quran states it clearly that war can be
waged only when it has been initiated by the other party. This verse
of the Quran on this subject is very explicit:
“It was they who initiated hostilities against you in the
first place.” (9:13)
A study of the Quran, Hadith and Fiqh tells us that Islam gives
permission to fight only in defence. Yet even in the waging of a
defensive war, Islam sets clear conditions. An Islamic war is one
which is waged by only fulfilling all these conditions. A war in
which these conditions are not observed is not an Islamic war, even
if this is waged by Muslims in the name of Islam. Here are some of
the conditions:
1. War can be declared only by an established government.
Non-governmental organisations have no permission to
wage war. War is a state matter in Islam. The public has
only the permission to work peaceful y. They are not
allowed to go to the extent of engaging themselves in
armed struggle.
2. Even for a genuine war it is essential that it be formally
declared. Undeclared war is not permissible, even by a
government.
3. Even in a genuine war Islam al ows only combatants to be
attacked. The killing of non-combatants is not al owed in
any war, however justified it might be. According to the
Islamic conditions a lawful war is only one which is a
defensive war, no war like gorilla war, proxy war,
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undeclared war is permissible in Islam. War for reform, for
removing obstacles, or for putting an end to injustice, are
also not permissible in Islam.
If we have to bring about reform in any society, or we have to
remove certain obstacles, these tasks can be carried out only
through peaceful struggle. If the problem is not solved through
peaceful struggle, even then we have to remain patient and on no
pretext can we engage in armed struggle according to Islam. We
have to remain patient and work peacefully towards that end.
The Prophet of Islam has been cal ed a Mercy to al the
nations. The word mercy is another name for peace. We can put
it dif erently and say that the Prophet of Islam was a Prophet of
peace. He was sent to establish peace in the world. A study of
Seerah tel s us that peace was the greatest concern of the
Prophet. Most of the traditions of the Prophet are directly or
indirectly in the nature of an injunction to maintain peace.
Similarly, a study of the 30-year life of the Prophet tel s us that in
al matters the Prophet always adopted methods aimed at
establishing peace.
For instance, according to one tradition, the Prophet of Islam
said: “Do not wish confrontation with your enemy, always ask for
peace from God.” (al-Bukhari) This shows that the actual object
desirable by the Prophet was peace not confrontation. For one who
is sincere in his prayers for peace, it is not possible to opt for war
instead of peace.
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Similarly on another occasion the Prophet of Islam said:
God grants to non-violence what He does not grant to
violence.
This saying of the Prophet of Islam tells us that, because of
their consequences, the Prophet regarded war and violence as
futile. He was convinced that goals can be achieved only by
peaceful means. No positive results can be achieved by the violent
method. This saying amounts to a Prophetic declaration in favour
of peace and against war.
In this connection one finds a number of sayings of the Prophet
of Islam in the books of Seerah and traditions which tell us directly
or indirectly that war and violence are to be abhorred. It was peace
which the Prophet desired most. This is because Islam is a religion
of peace. The Quran calls its ways “the paths of Peace” (5:16). It
favours reconciliation as the best policy (4:128). It is clearly stated
in the Quran that God abhors the disturbance of peace (2:205).
Thus I would like to conclude this chapter with this prayer of
the Prophet:
O God, you are peace. Peace is from you. Peace
returns to you. O Lord, let us live a life of peace. O
Lord, usher us into your home, the house of peace.
Glory be to God, the most high. All glory and all
greatness is for you, O Lord.
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam
7. THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
IN ISLAM
“My Lord! Increase me in Knowledge.” (20:114)
THE mission of the Prophet of Islam has been introduced in the
Quran at more than one place as an Instructor of the Book and
giver of wisdom. Here is a verse from the Quran:
“He it is who has raised among the unlettered people a
Messenger from among themselves who recites to
them His signs and purifies them, and to instruct them
in the Book and wisdom.” (62:2)
Similarly, on another occasion the Prophet of Islam presented
himself before the people saying, “I have been sent only as a
teacher.”
Then the first word revealed in the form of the Quran was
‘Iqra’ (96:1). The fourth verse of the first revelation forming part of
the chapter Al-Qalam has this to say:
“God has taught man by the pen.” (96:4)
We find more than 1500 derivatives and synonyms of the word
Ilm, that is, knowledge. It becomes easy to understand in the light
of this how the revelation of the Quran in this almost illiterate
nation of Arabia set off such a wave of receiving and imparting
education, which can rightly be called a learning explosion.
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The revolution brought about by this learning explosion
ushered in a new age of highly developed culture and civilization
not only in Arabia but al over the world. This is a fact that has
been acknowledged by historians. For instance, Indian historian, T.
Rama Rao begins his biography of the Prophet of Islam with these
words:
When he appeared, Arabia was a desert—a nothing.
Out of nothing of the desert a new world was fashioned
by the mighty spirit of Muhammad. A new life, a new
culture, a new civilization, a new kingdom, which
extended from Morocco to India and influenced the
thought and life of three continents—Asia, Africa and
Europe (Life of Muhammad).
MERIT OF THE LEARNED AND LEARNERS
The Quran and Hadith both hold men of knowledge superior to
the ignorant. (39:9) The books of hadith have a whole lengthy
chapter devoted to the importance of knowledge, and the rewards
of teaching and learning.
For instance, there is a tradition that one who treads a path in
search of knowledge has his way paved to paradise by God as a
reward for this noble deed (Bukhari, Muslim)
In a tradition recorded by Tirmidhi, angels in heaven, fish in the
water and ants in their dwellings pray for the well-being of a seeker
of knowledge.
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In another hadith the Prophet of Islam observed, those who
learn virtues and teach it to others are the best among humankind
(Al-Bayhaqi).
Not more than 150 people al over Arabia knew how to read
and write. They made the maximum use of their ability to
memorise, preserving all their literary heritage in their memory.
There is no trace of any systematic or organised activity of learning
or teaching in the society. But soon after the revelation of the
Quran, the trend of receiving education set in, and everyone who
accepted Islam learnt the Quran from the Prophet, and after
learning it himself taught to other converts. In this way the homes
of the early Muslims—Abu Bakr Siddiq, Al-Arqam bin Al-Arqam,
Fatimah bint Khattab—turned into centres of learning. Moreover,
from the very outset, the Prophet appointed scribes who were
assigned to write down the Quranic portions as soon as they were
revealed. This motivated others as well to learn writing so that they
might make their own copies of the holy textbook. It is to be noted
that even under life-threatening circumstances, when the Prophet
had had the first and second pledge at Al-Aqabah, three years
before the migration, he appointed twelve people who were most
learned amongst them as teachers of the Quran. These teachers
were so sincere and enthusiastic that within a short period of three
years they spread the knowledge of the Quran to almost each and
every home of the tribes of Al-Aws and Al-Khazraj. Hence when
the Prophet arrived at Madinah in the 13th year of his
Prophethood, he found all the young and old people of these tribes
well versed in the teachings of the Quran.
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At the Battle of Badr 70 people were taken prisoner. The
decision was taken after consultation with the senior companions
that on payment of 4000 dirhams each they would be set free.
Most of the Makkans being businessmen, knew how to read and
write. But the Madinans were mostly farmers, who did not know
how to read or write. Owing to the importance of education in
Islam it was decided that those prisoners of war who were not able
to pay ransom, should be asked to teach 10 Muslim children in
order to secure their freedom. This was the first proper school in
Islam established by the Prophet himself (Tabaqat, Ibn Sad).
The learning explosion produced by the first divine word Iqra
continued non-stop. It initially began at Makkah and gradually
spread throughout the world. After the demise of the Prophet, the
companions spread out in the neighbouring countries with the
same spirit of seeking knowledge and imparting it to others. From
Makkah to Madinah to Abyssinia to Iraq, to Egypt, to Baghdad this
revolutionary educational movement gradually passed on to Central
Asia and the East, then to Spain and the West.
For more than a thousand years these served as international
centres of learning, education, medicine and multidimensional
development in all spheres of life.
Women were not kept away from these activities. Starting with
the Prophet’s own household, Muslim families provided equal
opportunities to the female members of the family to learn to grow
and play a constructive role in the progress and development of
society at large. A large number of learned women have found
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam
mention in history as authorities on various Islamic sciences such
as hadith, Islamic jurisprudence, seerah of the Prophet,
commentary on the Quran, etc. The Prophet’s own wife, Aishah,
imparted the knowledge and wisdom she received from the first
educator, for almost half a century. She has narrated more than
two thousand traditions of the Prophet, and according to the
Muslim jurists, these are the source of two thirds of Islamic laws
relating to social, political and cultural issues.
Biographers such as Ibn Khallikan (author of Waqeyatul Ayan),
Ibn Sa’d (author of Tabaqat), Khatib Bhaghdadi (author of Taarikh
Baghdad) and Al-Miqrizi (author of al-Khutal wal-Athar) have
mentioned the names of thousands of women and their outstanding
contribution in the field of education and development in the
Muslim world. Noteworthy among them, for instance, are the two
sisters of Al-Fahri of Morocco, Fatimah and Maryam, the daughters
of Muhammad ibn Abdullah, who founded the Qayrawan University
and the Andalus University in the historical city of Fas in 245 A.H.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES
The emphasis of Islam on learning and teaching was not
confined to the Quran or the teachings of the Prophet. The Quran,
in fact, has given a new outlook, a new perspective or paradigm as
coined by Thomas Kahn (The Structure of Scientific Revolution,
1955). According to this Quranic paradigm, man’s most important
activity being intellectual contemplation or reflection, he was not
supposed to blindly follow any idea or notion just because it was
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam
attributed to his ancestors or some other authority. He had to
ponder on it critical y and realistical y. That is why we find that the
Quran is replete with hundreds of inspirational and motivational
verses that invite man to reflect on the wonderful creatures of God.
For example: In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the
alternation of night and day, there are signs for people with
intelligence, those who remember God standing, sitting, and lying
on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the
earth, (saying) “Our Lord! You have not created all this in vain
(without purpose), Glory be to You. (3:190-91, 7:176, 10:24,
13:3, 16:11).
This, we can say, was the intellectual seed, which is cal ed in
academic circles the spirit of enquiry. According to Toynbee and
other world historians, this spirit of enquiry was the first and
foremost prerequisite for the inauguration of the scientific era and
the elimination of a superstitious outlook on nature and life. So it
would not be an exaggeration to say that it is the Quran that has
laid down the foundation of modern science. On the other hand,
the Prophet himself has dealt with day-to-day problems of life in
accordance with this realistic approach taught by the Quran.
Consequently the same realistic approach became an integral part
of the frame of mind of his companions. They all became curious,
inquisitive and realistic in all matters of life.
For example, once the Prophet passed by an oasis where he
found the farmers, who were date planters at work. When he asked
what they were doing, he was told that they were pollinating the
clusters of dates in order to produce a better yield. The Prophet
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expressed his disapproval of this process. Knowing this, the farmers
immediately stopped it. But later on the Prophet was told that due
to lack of proper pollination the yield had been very low as
compared to the previous years. On hearing this, the Prophet
replied. “You know your worldly matters better.” (Sahih Bukhari) In
other words, experiment and observation should be the final
criteria in such worldly matters.
The invitation of the Quran to inquiry on the one hand and the
encouragement of the Prophet to engage in direct observation and
reflection on the other led the Muslims to study everything
objectively. They started eagerly learning from everyone
irrespective of his or her religious and cultural origins. This trend
of insatiable curiosity and open mindedness motivated the
succeeding generations during the Umayyad and Abbasid times to
enthusiastically learn and translate the cultural legacy of other
nations, particularly the Persian, Greek and Roman. Abu Jafar
Mansur (754-775) established Bayt al Hikmah (the House of
Wisdom) where highly paid multilingual scholars were appointed to
translate into Arabic books on Persian literature, Greek philosophy,
medicine, and other sciences available in those times in different
parts of the world.
This was an actualisation of the Prophet’s inspiring words:
“Wisdom is a believer’s own property, he should try to take it
wherever he finds it. Of the Abbasid Caliphs, Harun Ar-Rashid, Al-
Mamun and Mutadid Billah, are reported to have invited doctors,
philosophers, and learned scholars from various parts of the world to
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam
settle in Muslim cities and help in these activities. They even bought
some books by paying for them in gold equivalent to their weight.
This generous appreciation and support of the State
accelerated research work, and cultural exchange through
translation, which reflected on the general progress and
development of the entire Muslim world at that time. Spain, under
Muslim rule, witnessed a similar progressive and developmental
process. A number of world renowned historians of science and
civilization. (e.g. Hughman) have pointed out that Muslims’
contribution in the development of natural sciences and philosophy
were not merely confined to translations from Greek, Persian,
Indian, etc. For in view of their inquisitive and critical mind-set, it
were not possible for them to accept Greek philosophy or any
other sciences without an objective analysis. The fervour shown in
authentification of the Prophet’s words was also in action in the
field of natural science. Therefore Muslim scientists, doctors and
other experts were able to remove so many superstitious notions
about nature and life that prevailed among the Greek philosophers.
On the other hand they proved to be creative and innovative in the
widest sense of the term. They sent missions for exploring new
lands. They established observatories. They corrected many false
concepts in astronomy, medicine, chemistry and physics. It was the
legacy of the Islamic civilization that reached Europe via Spain after
the fall of Granada in 1492 A.H., which laid the foundation of the
Renaissance in the West.
Islam attaches such great importance to learning that the Quran
has this to say:
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam
“It is the men of knowledge who can truly realise
God.” (35:28)
Scholars are considered to be like angels (3:18), in view of
their potential for discovering the oneness and the glory of the
Creator. To inculcate this importance of knowledge in the minds of
the believers, the Prophet once observed that the worship of a
learned man is a thousand times better than that of the ignorant
worshipper (Mustadrak Al-Hakim). By way of encouraging
reflection on the universe and nature in order to explore divine
glories, the Prophet is reported to have said: “An hour of reflection
is better than a hundred years of worship without reflection.” (Al-
Bayhaqi).
It was this interrelatedness of knowledge and worship that
made the early Muslims seek and impart knowledge wholeheartedly
and religiously.
But knowledge for the sake of knowledge as such may not be
an acceptable notion according to Islamic ideology. Instead, a
Muslim is supposed to seek knowledge for the pleasure of his Lord
on the one hand and for the rendering of better services to the
welfare of humankind on the other. In other words, the motto of
education in Islam would be knowledge for the sake of serving God
and His creatures. That is why from the very beginning almost
equal attention has been paid to the learning of both the religious
sciences and the worldly or secular sciences.
Imam Ghazzali noticing a lack of interest among the youth of
his times in learning medicine and other useful crafts and skills,
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7. The Importance of Education in Islam
issued a fatwah that doctors, craftsmen, and experts of other
human skills are not less important than the scholars of fiqh, hadith
and pure religious sciences (Al-Qadim waal Hadith, M. Kurd Ali). If
the two-fold purpose of life is to worship God and serve mankind,
then a believer cannot succeed in achieving it unless he devotes all
his potential to the acquisition of religious and non-religious
knowledge. Thus we may conclude that:
a) Iqra being the first word revealed in the Quran, an
intellectual process was simultaneously started which we
have called the learning explosion.
b) The commandment of Iqra has been linked with the name
of God (Read in the name of your Sustainer). This
connection has given at the very outset the Islamic concept
of education, that is, knowledge should not be sought after
for the sake of knowledge, but for the sublime purpose of
the realisation of God and the welfare of man.
c) This two-fold purpose of life naturally called for Muslims to
strive hard in seeking knowledge both related to their
religion and to the progress and development of the human
condition in general. Since the Quran and hadith have
made no discrimination between men and women
concerning their rights and duties, the commandment of
Iqra is equally inspiring and motivating to womenfolk.
Consequently, they also did their best and contributed to
this noble cause with the same spirit, fervour and
dedication.
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d) The Quran paradigm based on the concept of Tawhid has
changed the traditional approach to the universe and
human life. An intellectual revolution took place,
superstitious thinking was replaced by rationalistic, realistic
and objective analysis. Thus in the words of Henry Pirenne,
Islam changed the face of the globe. The traditional order
of human history was overthrown.
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8. The Concept of Ijtihaad in Islam
8. THE CONCEPT OF IJTIHAAD IN
ISLAM
IJTIHAAD as a source of Islamic shariah has the approval of both the
Quran and the Sunnah. It is known as ‘inference’ in the Quran
(4:83) and Ijtihaad in tradition (sayings of the Prophet). It is first
referred to in a famous tradition of the Prophet concerning Muaz
ibn Jabal, a companion of the Prophet. The practice of Ijtihaad,
according to Muslim jurists (Fuqaha) can take place at two levels:
one is collective, which is cal ed Ijma (consensus), while the other
is individual in nature and is known as Qiyas (Analogy). Both the
Ijma and Qiyas aim at re-application of the principles of the Quran
and Sunnah to situations and problems not explicitly covered by
these two basic sources of religious legislation. (For details see:
Al-Umm, by Imam Shafii)
The compilation of the Quran in book form, instead of in the
separate portions possessed by the companions, is taken as a
historical example of collective Ijtihaad, i.e. Ijma in which all the
companions of the Prophet unanimously agreed on the legitimacy
of the project. Further details on this subject will be given later on,
while Qiyas (analogy), which is generally exercised at the individual
level, is illustrated by the following. The Quran prohibits the
drinking of wine. Similarly, the Prophet’s Sunnah contains a
number of prohibiting commandments in this connection. In those
times wine was the only intoxicant. That is why the Quran and
Sunnah have prohibited wine specifically. But what about drugs like
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hashish, cocaine, heroin, etc.? The Muslim jurists here applied the
principle of Qiyas. The muskir (intoxicant) mentioned in the Hadith
(Musnad Ahmad) was further elaborated upon by them to include
any substance, liquid or solid, causing “intoxication” and hence like
wine, will be considered as haram (prohibited). (Usul al-Fiqh, A.W.
Khallaf)
One who exercises Ijtihaad is termed “Mujtahid” as opposed to
“Muqallid” (one who unquestioningly abides by an established
school of law). There is a particular branch of Islamic jurisprudence
called “Usul al-Fiqh” (the fundamental principles of jurisprudence),
which exclusively deals with this topic. Starting with Shafi’s book
Al-Umm, a great number of books have been written to date on
this subject. According to these books, Mujtahid is of two kinds:
Mutlaq
(independent/unrestricted)
and
Muqayyad
(dependent/restricted). Sunni Muslims in general recognise only
four independent Mujtahid in Islamic history. First, Abu Hanifah
(81-150 A.H.), with whom the Hanafi school of law is identified.
Secondly, Malik ibn Anas (94-179), the founder of the Maliki
School of Law, thirdly, Ash Shafii (150-205), who is considered
the founder of the Shafii School of Law, and lastly, Ahmad ibn
Hanbal (164-241) the originator of the Hanbali School of Law.
In the present chapter the vastness of the literature of Usul-al
Fiqh preclude the possibility of lengthy discussion of the
fundamental principles of Ijtihaad. The author is mainly concerned
here with showing the relevance of Ijtihaad in the contemporary
world. Traditional scholars hold that, after the above mentioned
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four Imams, no one is authorised to practice independent Ijtihaad.
But an objective study of the Quran and hadith and other relevant
books surprisingly led me to the following conclusions:
a) Neither in the Quran nor in the hadith is there clear
evidence in favour of the traditional notion that Ijtihaad is
no longer allowed or required.
b) None of the four Imams mentioned above ever claimed that
the succeeding generations could do nothing but follow
them, without ever feeling the need to attempt an
independent Ijtihaad on any given subject.
c) A considerable number of scholars, right from the earlier
period to the present day have not only encouraged Ijtihaad
but have also strongly criticised the notion of taqlid (as
opposed to Ijtihaad). Among them are the names of
scholars as great as (1) Ahmad ibn Hanbal, (2) Ibn Abdus-
Salam, (3) As-Suyuti (4) Al-Shawkani (5) Bahrul Uloom
Abdul Ali (6) Grand Shaykh Al-Azhar M. Al Maraghi.
In view of these facts the whole of this chapter is devoted to
examining (a) What is Ijtihaad in its applied form and (b) What are
the areas or problems in modern times that urgently require
Ijtihaad, if Islam and the Muslims have to march forward in the
current millennium.
Ijtihaad literally means ‘doing one’s utmost’. In the terminology
of jurisprudence it refers to any effort made towards the application
of Islamic teachings to suit new or changing situations.
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Ijtihaad does not mean simply personal opinion, but rather the
seeking of guidance from the Quran and Hadith regarding changed
situations. The task can be performed only by those who have a
thorough knowledge of the Quran and Hadith. Coupled with this,
they should also be sincere in seeking guidance from these basic
sources of Islam. Whether Ijtihaad is practised through Ijma or
Qiyas, certain things must be borne in mind as pre-requisites for its
validity in relation to the Shariah.
a) Ijtihaad must be based on fundamental principles laid down
by the Quran and the Prophet and should not be
inconsistent with them.
b) The fundamental principles of the Shariah may be applied
and re-applied to any new situation through Ijtihaad,
provided this does not change anything clearly declared
Haraam (unlawful) into Halal (lawful), or vice versa.
c) Any law, rules, regulations concluded through Ijtihaad will
be acceptable only when they are conducive to achieving
the essential purposes of the Islamic shariah, which is
broadly divided into five categories : (i) preservation of life
(ii) preservation of money (iii) preservation of self-respect
and dignity (iv) preservation of one’s religion
(v) preservation of the intellect or sanity of mind (Al-
Muwafaqat, Shatibi).
Let us look at further examples. The Prophet once sent a group
of the Companions to the settlement of Banu Qurayza on the
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outskirts of Madinah. They set off after saying their noon prayer.
While despatching them, the Prophet gave them this instruction:
“You should not say your afternoon prayer before
reaching your destination in Banu Qurayza.” (Bukhari).
The companions left Madinah after their zuhr (noon) prayer.
But, when the sun was about to set they had still not reached the
Banu Qurayza. Seeing this, some of them said that if they followed
the Prophet literally they would miss the time specified for their Asr
(afternoon) prayer. So they said their prayers midway. Others
differed from this opinion, saying that they would say their prayers
only after reaching the settlement of Banu Qurayza, as the Prophet
had bade them.
When these people returned to Madinah, this issue was
brought before the Prophet. The Prophet approved the decision
taken by those who had said their prayers before reaching their
destination. They contended in justification of their act that when
the Prophet told them to say their Asr prayer only after reaching
the Banu Qurayza, he intended only to accelerate their journey and
reach the destination as soon as possible.
This incident makes the sense of Ijtihaad clear. We can say that
Ijtihaad is a process of arriving at reasoned decisions to suit new
circumstances in order to better fulfill the purposes of the Shariah.
Both the Prophet and his companions exercised Ijtihaad. The
Ijtihaad of the Prophet served to instruct the companions in the
method of Ijtihaad.
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Ijtihaad is a process, which is always at work in Islam. The
commandments of Islam are eternal in nature but the
circumstances keep changing. That is what necessitates the proper
understanding of the spirit of Islamic commandment and seek their
re-application in changed circumstances.
For instance the Muslim community has been commanded in
the Quran to prepare for power. (8:60) Power has been defined as
the ability to inspire awe in the enemy. In ancient times power
meant possessing an army and weapons. But today, after the great
progress made in science and industry, circumstances have been
totally revolutionised. Now power is not confined to military
weapons alone. Now education, social institutions, journalism,
industry, scientific research, economy, the electronic media, etc.
are all sources of power. Now on the question of the preparation
for power, a Mujtahid, (literally one who strives) for making original
decisions on canon law, rather than applying precedents already
established) can say that the commandment of the Quran is
undoubtedly eternal in nature, but that its reapplication will be
sought according to modern circumstances. And that plans for
making progress will now be made in peaceful arenas.
In modern times, Russia provides one example of the
accumulating of all sorts of weapons, including 30,000 nuclear
warheads. On the contrary, Japan did not make any military
preparation, rather made plans on a vast scale to go ahead in the
fields of education and economy. The result was totally different.
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Russia with al its military force collapsed, while Japan has become
an economic superpower in the modern world.
Islamic Ijtihaad, on parallel with the above, would entail a fresh
planning of the Muslim Ummah or Muslim State according to the
demands of modern times. Progressing beyond ancient traditional
thinking, the plan of progress and development should be chalked
out in the light of modern requirements.
This matter of Ijtihaad relates to all walks of life. For instance,
there is a tradition, which says:
“Start your fast after sighting the moon of the month of
Ramadan, and break your fast (to celebrate Eid) after
sighting the moon.” (Abu Dawood)
According to the words of the tradition it was held that
‘sighting the moon’ depended on seeing with the eyes. That is to
say, the first of Ramadan was to be fixed by sighting the moon with
one’s eyes and the same applied to the first of Shawwal (the day of
Eid). Thus fasting as well as Eid would both depend on the sighting
of the moon.
However, in modern times something new has been brought into
existence, which had never existed before—the observatory. The
moon, like other astronomical bodies, is sighted by the latest
telescopes and other scientific devices in the observatory and the
correct and precise movement of the moon is determined by
modern machines, which carry out the necessary mathematical
calculations. This system is so perfect that an absolutely accurate
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estimate can be made in advance as to the date and exact time that
the new moon will be sighted.
Now the situation is such that there is a pressing need for
Ijtihaad. In the case, Ijtihaad would rule that where tradition uses
the word ‘sighting’, the Mujtahid would say that according to the
change in circumstances, this tradition needs to be given a new
interpretation. And that is that the sighting of the moon by the
machines will be held to be as reliable as that of the human eye.
That is, if on the occasion of the beginning of the month the
horizon is not clear and the moon cannot be sighted by the human
eye, a mechanical observation will be relied upon. If the moon has
risen according to the mechanical observation the decision will be
taken that the month of Ramadan has started and the fasting will be
observed.
Let this point be made clear here that, according to modern
research the new moon appears on the 29th of every month.
However, the moon can be sighted only when it is 8 degrees above
the horizon.
In ancient times man had no knowledge of this reality. That is
why in those days sighting by the human eye was the only
dependable source. Now that by means of calculation or the
“mechanical eye” the movement of the moon can be ascertained
with precision, it will certainly be a proper use of Ijtihaad to
establish that the sighting of the moon by the mechanical eye is as
dependable a source as that of the human eye.
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“Ijtihaad of this kind has continued to be exercised in
Islamic history. This process of Ijtihaad is essential to
lend an eternal character to the teachings of Islam. If
this process of Ijtihaad comes to a standstill, Islam’s
eternal journey will also be affected.” (Al-Islam,
Maulana Wahiduddin Khan)
Here we provide some instances from the early history of Islam.
The written or recorded pieces of the Quran were collected
during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and under the
guidance of Zayd ibn Thabit Ansari one copy of the complete
Quran was compiled in book form.
After the preparation of this volume the question arose as to
what should be done with the remaining recorded parts of the
Quran, which had been collected from the possessions of different
companions. These were written on such diverse materials as
bones, leaves of the date, white stones, thin skin, depending upon
what was available in those days.
A study of Islamic history shows that, after long deliberations, a
consensus emerged among the concerned companions that those
fragmentary parts should be burnt. This was a clear case of
Ijtihaad. (See details in Tadween-e-Quran, by M.A. Gilaani).
Similarly, during the caliphate of Umar Farooq, the second caliph
of Islam, when Iraq’s fertile land was conquered, the question
arose as to how this land was to be administered.
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According to the prevailing custom, the movable and
immovable spoils of war were divided among the soldiers after the
conquest, for in those days there was generally no regular or
standing army. People used to join the army voluntarily, and it was
in the form of booty that they were given remuneration.
But the caliph Umar refused to give away the land of Iraq to
the soldiers as booty. A meeting of the senior knowledgeable
companions was cal ed to deliberate over this matter. Finally the
consensus emerged that the land should be the property of the
State. This was a case of Ijtihaad, a decision arrived at by the
consensus of the companions, keeping in view the spirit and long-
term aims of the Islamic shariah. (Tarikh Umar ibn Khattab, Ibn
Jawzi).
Similarly, during the Abbasid caliphate, when the Hadith was
collected and compiled and also the fiqh (Islamic law) was
compiled, this whole method was based on Ijtihaad. For there was
no precedent of this type of task in the Prophet’s time. This
process of collection and compilation was approved of by all the
scholars of Islam.
But in later periods of Islamic history when the political
institution of Islam weakened, some scholars declared that now the
door of Ijtihaad must be closed lest it lead to anarchy. In this way,
the process of Ijtihaad has been almost entirely in abeyance for the
last several hundred years.
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Ijtihaad is a natural requirement. In the ever-changing phases of
life its importance is so great that, even after the door of Ijtihaad
having been closed, its process is continuing without any formal
announcement.
One interesting example of this dates back to the British
period, when paper currency replaced gold and silver coins. There
lived in Delhi a great scholar by the name of Abdul Haq Haqqani.
He was asked to issue a fatwa (religious edict) as to whether these
paper notes were lawful or unlawful. He did not comply with this
request, saying: “My fatwa will not gain currency, but paper notes
will.”
The truth is that no excuse justifies closing the door of Ijtihaad.
According to a tradition recorded in Sahih Al-Bukhari:
“The Prophet of Islam observed: One who exercised
Ijtihaad and succeeded in reaching the right decision
would be doubly rewarded, and if he failed to reach the
right decision, he would also be rewarded for his
sincere effort towards this end.”
This tradition clearly and unconditionally encourages the
process of Ijtihaad by saying that even when there is a chance of
going wrong, it should be continued, the reason being that putting
a stop to Ijtihaad brings about intellectual stagnation, and without
doubt this is a greater evil than a wrong decision.
A number of important issues have come up in modern times,
but, without Ijtihaad Muslims have failed to receive proper
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guidance. This has resulted in great and irreparable losses. For
instance, in modern times science has come to receive great
importance. But Muslims have continued to keep away from it
holding it to be something unIslamic. Similarly the political
principle of democracy has been introduced to the world, but
Muslims fail to understand its utility.
In a similar way, secularism is a popular political philosophy in
modern times. But Muslim scholars fail to understand its practical
utility and that is why they have come to regard it as unlawful.
On the issue of nationalism too, religious scholars have failed
to adopt a correct stand. That is why Muslims are still confused
about it. Nationhood in modern times is based on the homeland.
That is to say, those who share a common land will have the same
nationhood, whatever their religion and culture might be. Today
this concept has been accepted all over the world. But Muslims are
not yet ready to accept it wholeheartedly.
The reason for this is that, traditionally, Muslims have
cherished the concept of pan-Islamism for several centuries. They
believe that Muslims living all over the world are one nation. That
is to say, the Muslims’ traditional bent of mind caused them to
regard the basis of nationhood as religion rather than homeland.
This concept runs counter to the modern concept of the state,
although Muslims in every country enter in their passports their
nationality as being that of their country of residence.
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Evidently their minds are confused in this regard. The reason
again being that the scholars of modern times have not exercised
Ijtihaad on the subject of nationhood, and have thus failed to give
clear guidance to Muslims.
Events tell us that, through sheer force of circumstances
Muslims all over the world are following in the footsteps of other
nations. This state of affairs has led them to opt for a life of
contradiction. They adopt something they consider unIslamic
owing to practical compulsions. Their thinking and their actions are
not in accord with one another.
It was the responsibility of Muslim religious scholars to exercise
Ijtihaad and guide Muslims in solving these modern problems so
that they might wholeheartedly adopt such values as they have
already adopted by way of compulsion. This is the only way of
extricating Muslims from the state of confusion and its grave
consequences.
Since their minds are not clear in these matters they are able to
take part in the modern world only in a limited fashion owing to
worldly compulsions. This is why they are lagging behind all other
nations in the race of progress.
Other nations in modern times are wholeheartedly advancing
along the path of progress. But Muslims’ participation is minimal
because of their half-hearted approach. This is the sole reason for
Muslims’ backwardness in modern times.
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Apart from lagging behind in the race of progress, they are also
suffering from many socio-political and cultural problems at both
national and international levels. For example, on the national level,
Muslims living as a minority in non-Muslim countries are generally
not considered ‘loyal citizens’, as the modern concept of
nationhood and its resultant obligations have yet to be legitimised
by the Islamic shariah authorities. Banking, interest, insurance and
other forms of financial transaction still await the unanimous stamp
of approval of the Muslim Ulama.
None of these problems and misconceptions can be removed
without a wide acceptance of Ijtihaad throughout the Muslim
world.
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9. Human Rights in Islam
9. HUMAN RIGHTS IN ISLAM
“O people! Behold, we have created you from a male
and a female; and we have made you into tribes and
sub-tribes, so that you may recognise one another. The
most honourable among you, in the sight of God, is he
who is the most righteous among you. God is
All-Knowing, All-Aware. (49:13)
RIGHTS in Islam are divided into two categories. One concerns
divine rights (Huququllah) and the other, human rights (Huququl
Ibad). Though divine rights are superior to human rights, this
difference is a matter of belief or doctrine and not a matter of
action or practice.
In the practical sense, both the rights: divine and human are so
interrelated that sometimes it becomes impossible to separate one
from the other.
In fact, it is the observance of divine right that paves the way
for the observance of human rights in the true sense of the word.
For instance, the first and foremost divine right is Tawhid, that is,
to declare the oneness of God, without associating anything with
Him, as the Quran says:
Say, “He is God, the One.
He is self-sufficient
He begets not, nor was He begotten.”
(112:1-3)
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This belief of Tawhid helps man realise the fact that there is
nothing superior to or greater than God. All creatures, including
human beings, irrespective of their external differences, are
equal in dignity as well as in responsibility before the one and
only God. Anyone who abuses or humiliates or ridicules others
abuses the Creator indirectly. Such commandments abound in
the Quran and Hadith and show that divine rights and human
rights are so interdependent that they become complementary to
one another.
It is as if God will not accept our obeisance to Him if we do not
fulfill the human rights prescribed in the Quran and Hadith.
For instance, the Prophet is reported to have said:
“By God, he is not a believer,
By God, he is not a believer,
By God, he is not a believer.”
When asked by the companions,
‘Who is he?’,
The Prophet replied,
“He whose neighbour is not safe from his mischievous
deeds.”
(Abu Dawud)
The differences between human beings seen as justifications for
discrimination resulting in the violation of basic human rights are
considered in the Quran as signs of God:
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“And among His signs is the creation of the heavens
and the earth, and the diversity of your tongues and
colours. In that surely are signs for those who possess
knowledge. (30:22)
All the differences of race, community or tribe (49:13) are just
for mutual introduction (Ta’aruf) and not for discrimination. The
differences of race, community or tribe are not meant for
discrimination against one another. They exist rather for the
purpose of knowing and appreciating one another.
It is astonishing to note that the Quran had declared fifteen
hundred years ago the biological unity of human beings, a fact
which was scientifical y established only during the sixties of the
20th century (Domenique Perri, Building Peace)
The fifth chapter of the Quran begins with this proclamation:
‘O mankind, be conscious of your Sustainer, who has
created you out of a single living soul and out of it
created its mate. And out of the two spread on the
earth a multitude of men and women... (4:1)
It was the realisation of this biological unity of the whole of
mankind that made the Prophet say in his night prayers:
“O God, I bear witness that all human beings are
brothers.” (Nasai)
In illustration of this fact, it was recorded that one day the
Prophet saw a funeral procession passing through a street in
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Madinah. He stood up in deference. When he was told by his
companions that the deceased person was a Jew, not a Muslim, the
Prophet said: Was he not a human being? (Sahih al-Bukhari)
Human life in Islam is held in such high esteem that the killing
of a single human being is considered equivalent to the
assassination of the whole of mankind. And the protection of a
single human life is equivalent to the protection of the whole of
mankind. It is so stated in the Quran with reference to the murder
of Abel by his elder brother Cain, this being the first violation of
human rights in human history. (5:27-32)
Some scholars claim that Islam does not have any provision for
human rights in the modern sense, since it is theocentric, and
therefore God is regarded as the starting point of all thought and
action. On the contrary, the modern concept of human rights is
anthropocentric, wherein man forms the centre of everything.
However, a thorough analysis shows that this view is based on a
misconception. Man’s primary duty in Islam consists of obeying
God wholeheartedly and unconditional y. All other rights, including
human rights, automatical y stem from this primary duty towards
God.
We can say that, without this theocentric perspective, neither
can the fulfillment of human rights be ensured nor their violation
be avoided. The preamble of the UN Charter of Human Rights
(UDHR) calls on all member nations to strive to construct a new
world order, on a sounder basis, ‘one in which the recognition of
the inherent dignity and the equal inalienable rights of all the
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members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice
and peace in the world. (See for the ful text of UDHR: EB
X/1049)
It would be difficult to say that the UN or any other national or
international body or authority has actually established the required
world order on a sound basis. But in Islam as stated earlier, the
doctrine of Tawhid and unconditional obedience to God provide
the most powerful incentive for the observance of human rights
and the strongest deterrence as such against their violation.
SOME COMPARATIVE EXAMPLES
Muslim scholars have thoroughly studied the topic of human
rights. For details the readers may refer to the following books—1.
Human Rights in Islam by Muhammad Zafarullah Khan. 2. Islam
and Human Rights by A.E. Mayer. 3. Human Rights in Islam by
Dr. Parveen Shaukat.
However, it would be better to give here some references from
the Quran, Hadith and Islamic history. This may show us a clearer
picture of human rights in the Islamic Shariah, both in theory and
in practice.
1. FREEDOM OF RELIGION:
Religious freedom is the basic human right whose violation has
caused conflicts, wars and bloodshed in both ancient and modern
societies. The Quran, therefore, has declared for the first time in
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human history, that ‘there shall be no coercion in matters of
religion.’ (2:256). In view of this prohibition of coercion (Ikrah), all
Islamic jurists (Fuqaha) without any exception, hold that forcible
conversion is under all circumstances null and void. Any attempt to
coerce a non-believer to accept Islam is a grievous sin, (Ahkam al-
Quran, al-Jassas). According to this principle of ‘non-coercion’, it
is not permissible to exploit or manipulate personal weaknesses or
calamities (e.g. poverty, sickness, famine, etc.) for religious
conversion. That is why old and downtrodden non-Muslims were
exempted from taxes and given all monetary support by the Islamic
state without ever being asked to embrace Islam just for the
advantages it would give them.
Once a Jewish widow came to the Caliph Umar asking for some
financial aid. Umar tried to persuade her to accept Islam. He
promised to take care of all her needs if she embraced Islam. But
the lady refused. Umar then gave her more than she had asked for.
When she departed, Umar raised his hands towards heaven and
said:
“O God, bear witness that I have not exercised any
coercion on this lady.”
(Tarikh Umar ibn Khattab, Ibn al-Jawzi)
2. JUSTICE AND EQUALITY BEFORE THE
LAW:
According to the Quran and Hadith, the establishment of
justice is one of the most essential goals in the sending of the
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prophets and in revealing the divine scriptures (57:25). The just
are loved by God (60:8) while the unjust will face the fire of Hell
(72:15).
The Prophet once observed:
“God does not bless a community in which the weak
cannot take from the strong what is rightfully theirs
without fear of reprisal.” (Sunan, Ibn Majah)
Deviation from the path of justice is not al owed, even when it
concerns one’s opponent or enemy (5:8). The ruler and the ruled,
the rich and the poor, black and white, should be treated equally
before law, without any discrimination or distinction of race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political affiliation, birth or other
status. The following two incidents illustrate how strictly this ideal
was religiously maintained in the early phase of Islam in accordance
with Islamic doctrines and commandments.
A woman by the name of Fatimah, belonging to the Banu
Makhzum tribe, once committed a theft. Her kinsfolk, fearing that
her hand would be amputated, sent Usamah ibn Zayd to intercede
with the Prophet on her behalf. When the Prophet heard this pre-
planned intercession, signs of anger appeared on his face.
“Are you trying to sway me as to the limits laid down by God?”
he asked. Usamah ibn Zayd immediately admitted his mistake and
begged the Prophet to pray on his behalf for forgiveness. The
Prophet then delivered a sermon to those assembled there saying:
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“Communities of old came to grief and destruction
because of the disparity and leniency shown to those in
high positions when they committed such an of ence.
On the contrary, any offender of humble origin or lowly
status in society had harsh punishment meted out to
him. By God, if my own daughter Fatimah were to
steal, I would have her hand cut off.” (Al-Bukhari,
Muslim)
3. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND DISSENT:
The principle of non-coercion mentioned above has not been
confined to religious freedom alone. Rather, it has been extensively
elaborated upon and widely applied to all social, cultural, and
political spheres of society. This has led to the development of a
new culture in which individuals enjoy freedom of expression,
dissent and criticism without any fear or restriction. Two examples
may suffice to explain to what extent this essential human right was
observed in earlier Muslim societies.
Once the Caliph Umar came to a well of the Banu Harithah
where he met an outspoken person named Muhammad ibn
Maslama. “How do you find me?” he asked Muhammad, “By God,
I find you just as I would like you to be and just as it would please
any well-wisher to see you. You are good at accumulating money, I
see, but you keep your hands clean of it yourself, distributing it
equitably to others.” “But,” went on Muhammad ibn Maslama, “If
you adopt a crooked course, we will straighten you, just as we
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straighten swords by placing them in a vice.” At these aggressively
critical words, Umar, the second Muslim Caliph, exclaimed:
“Praise be to God, who has put me among a people
who will straighten me when I become crooked.”
(Kanz al-Ummal)
When Muslims at Madinah, with their increasing affluence,
began to settle huge dowers (mahr) on their daughters, Umar, in
his capacity as caliph, ordered that no one should demand or pay a
dower that exceeded four hundred dirhams, and that anything in
excess of this amount would be confiscated and deposited in the
public treasury (Baitul-Mal).
After the proclamation of this ordinance, when he came down
from the pulpit, a tall, flat-nosed old woman stood up and
confidently said:
‘The Quran has set no restrictions on this matter:
Umar has no right to set an upper limit to the dowers.”
To back up her contention, she loudly recited this verse of the
Quran:
“If you decide to take one wife in place of another, do
not take back from her the dower you have given her,
even if it be a talent of gold.’ (4:20).
Umar’s immediate reaction on hearing this was to say:
“A woman has quarrelled with Umar and has bested
him.”
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According to another account, Umar said:
“May God, forgive me, everyone knows better than
Umar., even this old lady.” (Tirmidhi/Ahmad)
With the advent of Islam in the seventh century, however, it
was declared for the benefit of mankind that all greatness was the
exclusive prerogative of God, and that in the eyes of God, all
human beings were equal. The Prophet Muhammad declared not
once, but on many occasions that all were alike, al were brothers.
“The Prophet not only stated the truth but also made it a
reality by bringing about a total revolution based on the idea of
human equality. On achieving political domination in Arabia, he
was able to put this theory into practice in his capacity as ruler of a
state. In this way, Islam put an end to discrimination between
human beings on the basis of race, colour, status, etc. People were
assigned a high or low status according to their moral worth.”
(Islam, the Creator of the Modern Age, Maulana Wahiduddin
Khan)
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10. The Concept of Social Welfare in Islam
10. THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL
WELFARE IN ISLAM
ALL human beings, according to Islam, have been created by one
and the same God, and for this reason they belong to one great
brotherhood. All being descendants of the same progenitors, they
should naturally be each other’s well-wishers and should willingly
come to one another’s assistance, like the members of the same
large family. Charity, an important way of bringing justice to
society, has been preached by every religion of the world. And
justice, being the essence of religion, Islam has made charity
obligatory and binding upon all those who embrace the faith, laying
the greatest emphasis on the support of the needy and destitute
members of society. It is thus a sacred duty of the affluent to give
part of their wealth to fulfill the needs of the deprived members of
the community.
A society can flourish only when its members do not spend all
their wealth on the satisfaction of their own desires, but reserve a
portion of it for, relatives, neighbours, the poor and the needy. As
the saying goes: Charity begins at home. A true believer is thus
always prepared, after meeting the needs of his family, to assist
other people in need of his help.
Charity in its broadest sense has been called sadaqah in Islam.
Such great importance is attached to charity that the month of
Ramadan has been fixed for individuals to be trained in the practice
of charity. It has therefore been made into an institution in order to
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give it permanence and regularity. The law of zakah, i.e. to take
from the wealthy and give to the poor, rotates wealth in such a way
as to balance social inequality. The required annual contribution to
public welfare amounts to two and a half percent of one’s income.
The rate of zakah on other types of wealth, such as agricultural
produce and jewellery is higher. Islamic law empowers the Islamic
State or Community to collect the zakah, and to keep a separate
account of it. Zakah funds must be spent on the eight categories
specified in the Qur’an (2:177) namely, the poor and the destitute,
the bankrupt, captives, collectors of zakah and in the cause of
God. The last category allows these funds to be used for the social
welfare of the community—for the education of the people, for
public works, and for any other need of the Muslim community.
There are two forms of charity in Islam— obligatory and
voluntary, which are respectively called zakah and sadaqah. Zakah,
from the verb zakah, which signifies “to thrive,” “to be
wholesome,” “to be pure,” means purification. Giving up a portion
of one’s wealth, which is in excess of what one needs for one’s own
sustenance, is a purifying process, which legitimises the use of the
remainder by the donor.
Deducting zakah from one’s earning is a material
acknowledgement of the fact that the actual giver is God. And
since the giver is God, the recipient is duty-bound to spend it in
His cause. In spirit, zakah is an act of worship, while in its external
form, it is the carrying out of a social service. Zakah is thus not just
the payment of a tax, but is of great religious significance. Its
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importance is underscored by the fact that the Quran treats it on a
par with salah (prayer).
There are such traditions as stress the importance of giving
sadaqah in the holy month of Ramadan. Therefore, in this month of
fasting, almost all those who can afford it, help poor people in one
way or another.
The Qur’an frequently enjoins believers ‘to perform the
worship and pay the zakat’ and even goes to the extent of saying
that one cannot attain righteousness unless one spends out of
one’s wealth for the love of God. It also says:
“By no means shall you attain righteousness unless you
give of that which you love.” (3:92)
Since charity is purely for the sake of God, it has value only if
something good and valuable is given. It should be lawfully earned
or acquired by the giver. It should include such things as are of use
and value to others. So the test of charity lies in giving away not
just things that we have discarded, but things that we greatly value.
What God demands is unselfishness. It may be in any form—
personal efforts, talents, skills, learning, property or possessions.
Charity is, in the words of the Prophet, to place a thing in the palm
of God. It is therefore, obvious that placing worthless things in the
hand of God is a dishonour to Him.
But the demand of Islam that all its followers should spend
their wealth freely on the common good of society cannot be met
solely by the payment of the obligatory levy of zakah. There must
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also be additional almsgiving on a voluntary basis. This is referred
to in Islamic literature as sadaqat-al-tatawwu (the alms of
spontaneity). The only difference between sadaqah and zakah is
that the former is voluntary, while the latter is obligatory, and
collected by the government as a compulsory levy. The rate and
exemption limit (Nisab) for zakah are fixed, while the amount of
other sadaqah is entirely dependent upon the will of the giver. The
term sadaqah, as applied to alms, is an indication of the sincerity
(sidk) of the almsgiver’s religious belief.
The term sadaqah is also in certain cases used in a very broad
sense to cover all kinds of charity, and should be interpreted
according to the context. From the root sadaqah, “to speak the
truth, to be true”, it literally means righteousness. Ibn Arabi
explains it as a “voluntary act of worship, a choice made by one’s
own free will. If this is not the case, then it is not voluntary
sadaqah. For man makes it obligatory upon himself as God makes
mercy obligatory upon Himself towards those who repent.”
The scope of charity as defined in the Qur’an is so vast that even
a poor person who has nothing tangible to give can offer sadaqah in
the shape of a smile, or by of ering a glass of water to a thirsty
person, or by uttering a kindly word. Good conduct is frequently
referred to in the hadith as sadaqah. Even planting something from
which a human being, a bird or an animal may later eat also counts
as sadaqah. In this extended sense, acts of loving kindness and even
greeting one another with a cheerful expression are regarded as
sadaqah. In short, every good deed is sadaqah.
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According to a hadith, the Prophet observed: In one’s wealth
there is a due (to God and His men) besides zakah. Hadhrat Ali,
the fourth caliph, has thus explained this hadith:
“God has ordained that the rich are to pay out of their
wealth to an extent sufficient for the needs of the poor,
so that if they do not find food and clothing, or any
other need remains to be fulfilled, it would be because
the rich are not doing their duty, and for this God will
take them to task on the Day of Judgement.”
And according to Abdullah ibn Umar, the great religious
scholar of the first phase of Islam:
“If the zakah levy is insufficient to meet the needs of
the poor, then it is the duty of the rich of every town to
put the poor on their feet.”
The Qur’an, in fact, refers to the haq, i.e. the right of the poor
to be given assistance; so that what the wealthy man is asked to
give is not just charity, but that which as a matter of right should
come back to the poor.
There are many verses in the Qur’an and many traditions of
the Prophet, which make it quite, clear that there is a due besides
zakah, and that even when the wealthy have paid this tax, they have
still not fully discharged their duties. Abu Dhar Ghifari, one of the
Prophet’s companions, reported that the Prophet, while sitting in
the shade of the Kabah wall, said: “They are the losers.” Abu Dhar
enquired: “Who are they, O Messenger of God?”
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The Prophet replied: “Those who pile up heaps of wealth and
(pointing in all directions with his hands) do not spend like this and
this and this.” (Bukhari and Muslim)
Since zakah and sadaqah are not only moral obligations to
society, but acts performed by believers to seek God’s pleasure, a
high standard is set for the manner of their accomplishment.
Abdullah Yusuf Ali writes of charity in his commentary on the
Qur’an:
(l) “lt must be in the way of God.
(2) No reward must be expected for it in this world.
(3) It must not be followed by references to or
reminders of the acts of charity.
(4) Still less should any annoyance or injury be
caused to the recipient, e.g. by boasting that the
giver relieved the person in his hour of need.”
Thus the spirit of kindness and well-wishing is the essence of
charity. The giver is not to expect any reward from the recipient, as
there awaits for him an abundant reward from God—material,
moral and spiritual—whatever God thinks it best to confer upon
His servant.
The Qur’an, in verse 264 of chapter 2, admonishes us not to
spend “to be seen of men.” This is false charity. Spending with this
motive is worse than not spending at all. In verse 265, God gives
us a beautiful parable to illustrate what true charity is like. It is like
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a field with good soil in an elevated position. It catches good
showers of rain and the moisture penetrates the soil. With these
favourable conditions, its output increases enormously. Similarly, a
man of true charity is spiritual y healthy. He is best placed to attract
God’s bounties. The Qur’an goes on to give four parables (verses
261-266), which explain the truly spiritual nature of charity and
how it bears on the whole of our lives.
Yet, there are some people who think that acts of charity would
ruin them. Abdullah Yusuf Ali comments on such doubts: “No kind
or generous act ever ruined one.” And we have never heard of
anyone who, due to his generosity to good causes, has been
impoverished. This is because the generous alms-giver has God’s
promise that He wil shower him with greater bounties. (2:268) On
the other hand, false generosity, that is, extravagant expenditure
for show or self-indulgence can and does lead people to ruin.
Verse 271 of the second chapter of the Qur’an makes the point
that publicity should never be the motive for an act of charity. We
must remember that we can seek God’s pleasure only if our
motives are pure.
In verse 273, the Qur’an states, “Charity is for those in need.”
This is a general condition to help people in need whether they are
good or bad, on the right path or not, Muslims or non-Muslims.
We are not supposed to sit in judgement on these matters. It is
worth reiterating here that the chief motive in charity should be
God’s pleasure and our own spiritual good. This verse was
revealed in the first instance in Madinah, but is of general
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application. The concept of charity in Islam is thus linked with
justice, and is not limited to the redressed of grievances. It implies,
apart from the removal of handicaps, the recognition of the right
that every human being has to attain the fullness of life.
Inspired by the traditions of the Prophet, the spirit of helping
others to earn God’s pleasure has been best reflected in Muslim
society in the field of education. Following the dictum: “The
greatest charity is for a Muslim to learn something and then teach
it to others” (Ahmad). Generation after generation, Muslims in
large numbers have devoted themselves to the enlightenment of
others in the field of education. They did this individually and also
by establishing maktabs and madrasas, that is primary schools and
colleges. These educational institutions, set up in the house of the
teacher or in separate buildings, generally made no charges for
instruction. Wealthy people helped in the running of these
madrasas, not only through zakah but also by making them
endowments (waqf) of their properties, the income from which met
the needs of these schools. Orphans and poor people were given
stipends in addition to boarding and lodging.
Waqf is a permanent form of charity, which is called sadaqah
jariah. It covers, in addition to giving education to the needy, such
good works as helping someone to recover from some disease by
monetary assistance; looking after orphans and the destitute, and
giving scholarships to students. This being an institution is the
reason for so many centres of social welfare having continued to
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exist among the Muslim community. However, there are no
statistical records of the work of individuals in this field.
Inspired by the verses of the Qur’an and the traditions and
practices of the Prophet and his companions, the giving of sadaqah
to individuals or institutions remains a widespread practice among
Muslims. The Prophet, the most generous of men, used to give
with his own hand. When asked for anything, he never refused. If
he had nothing to give, he would borrow from one of his
companions and repay him later.
The Prophet’s wives were also renowned for their almsgiving.
Of them, Zaynab bint Jahsh was the most generous. The Prophet
used to call her “the longest in arm”. She was also known, on
account of her almsgiving, as the “mother of the poor.” Whenever
anyone uttered any words of blessing for her, she would return the
blessing along with some alms. Then we have the shining examples
of generosity set by the pious caliphs. Once when the Prophet
urged them to give sadaqah, Umar ibn al-Khattab brought the half
of what he owned, only to discover that he had once again been
outdone by Abu Bakr who had given away all that he possessed.
There is a very interesting example of the generosity of
Uthman, the third Caliph. During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr,
people were in great distress due to a drought. The Caliph told
them to remain patient, for God would soon relieve them. Before
long, Usman’s caravan arrived with its merchandise from Syria.
There were one thousand camels in it, al of them loaded with
wheat and foodstuffs from Syria. When the news got around
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Madinah, all the great traders of Madinah, rapidly converged on
Usman’s house. When he emerged to meet them, they expressed
their urgent desire to purchase the foodstuffs, so that they could
pass them to those who needed them in Madinah.
Ushering them inside, he asked them how much profit they
were prepared to give him on this merchandise. “Twelve dirhams
on every ten dirhams worth,” they replied. “But I can get a better
price,” said Uthman. “Then we’ll give you fourteen,” Uthman again
said that he could get a better price, whereupon they put their
price up to fifteen dirhams. But, Uthman stood firm. Bewildered by
his attitude, they asked him, who could give him a better price,
considering that all of the merchants of Madinah were already
assembled there. “I can get ten dirhams for every dirham’s worth,”
he told them, then asked them if any one of them could give a
better price than that. No one spoke up. Then, Uthman recited the
verse of the Qur’an, which says that those who do good will be
rewarded ten-fold (6:160). He explained to them that he intended
to give away all the wheat and other foodstuffs to the needy people
of Madinah.
According to the teachings of Islam, the giving of sadaqah
serves a number of functions. Sadaqah, first and foremost acts as
expiation for sins. Believers are asked to give sadaqah immediately
following any transgression. Voluntary almsgiving can also
compensate for any shortcoming in the past payment of zakah.
Sadaqah also gives protection against all kinds of evils, wards off
affliction in this world, questioning in the grave, and punishment on
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Judgement Day. It is, therefore, recommended to give sadaqah, by
night and by day, in secret and in public to seek God’s pleasure
(2:274). The constant giving of little is said to please God more
than the occasional giving of much. Sadaqah is also a means of
moral edification. It purifies the soul of the evil of avarice, and is a
reflection of the generosity of God the All-Giving.
We conclude with a hadith, which sums up the essence of
charity:
“Every good act is charity. Your smiling to your brother
is charity; an exhortation of your fel ow men to virtuous
deeds is equal to almsgiving; your putting a wanderer
on the right road is charity; your assisting the blind is
charity; your removing stones, and thorns, and other
obstructions from the road is charity; your giving water
to the thirsty is charity. A man’s true wealth as regards
the Hereafter is the good he does in this world to his
fellowmen. When he dies people will ask, What
property has he left behind him?” But the angels will
ask: “What good deeds has he sent before him?”
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11. The Concept of Spirituality in Islam
11. THE CONCEPT OF SPIRITUALITY
IN ISLAM
SPIRITUALITY as a philosophy has a long history of five thousand
years. In ancient Greece there were great philosophers like Plato
and Aristotle whose thinking was spiritual in character. According
to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, spiritualism is the philosophy of
higher reality, which has been defined by different philosophers in
different words such as, “immaterial reality,” “a universal mind,” “a
supreme being,” “spiritual cosmic force,” “infinite personal God,”
etc.
Spirituality, being a subjective discipline, it cannot be described
in objective terms. Every person is composed of two things—body
and spirit. The body is related to objective science while the spirit
is related to subjective science.
There are two different concepts of spirituality: God-oriented
spirituality which is based on the concept of God Almighty, and
man-oriented spirituality, which is based on man’s soul itself being
the treasure-house of spirituality. As for the former concept
spirituality results in God-realisation while in the latter, spirituality
results from self-realisation.
The concept of self-realisation is based on the assumption that
the treasure of spirituality exists within man himself. And through
meditation man can peep into his inner self and discover
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spirituality. This concept has been explained by Acharya Rajneesh
in his book, “Kundalini Andar Base.” However this concept of
man-oriented spirituality called “indwel ing God” by Pandu Rang
Shashtri, founder of the Swadhyaye Movement, is not corroborated
by Islam. According to Islam man has no such spiritual treasure
house existing independently. For man is a taker-creature. He
receives everything from his Creator.
The concept of spirituality in Islam is based on the principle of
God-realisation. God is the treasure house of all virtues. And when
man’s contact with God is established, in the world of his feelings,
at the psychological level, an unseen, inner revolution is brought
about which is cal ed spirituality. In this matter the relationship
between God and man can be likened to an electric wire and the
power house. When the wire is connected to the power house,
electricity is produced, and the place is lit up. In this way, light is
the result of the wire’s connection to the power house of God.
Human nature is like an inflammable element. When an
inflammable element like petrol comes near fire, it is ignited.
Similarly, human nature is awakened when it comes in contact with
God.
This finds expression in the Quran in these words:
Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth. The
metaphor of His light is that of a niche in which there is
a lamp, the lamp inside a glass, the glass like a brilliant
star, lit by a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the east
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nor of the west, whose oil would well-nigh glow forth
even though fire did not touch it. Light upon light!
Allah guides to His light whom He wil s. And Allah sets
forth parables to men, and Allah has knowledge of all
things. (24:35)
This is a compound simile. ‘Light’ here means the guidance of
Almighty, ‘niche’ means the human heart and ‘lamp’ denotes the
capability to receive divine inspiration. Glass and oil elaborate
upon this receptivity.
‘Glass’ shows that this receptivity has been lodged in the
human heart, protected from outside influences, and clear oil
indicates that this receptivity is very strong and is eagerly waiting to
receive inspiration.
This verse makes it clear that, on the one hand, is God, the
source of inspiration, and on the other, is the consciousness of
spirituality (God-consciousness) with which man is born. In this
way when these two things come together, Islamic spirituality
comes into existence. This is indeed another name for the
awakening of God-consciousness. When it reaches its highest stage
the believer’s realisation of God comes to that point where he
begins to feel consciously in his worship that he is seeing God and
that if he is not seeing God, God is seeing him. If the first type of
experience is called direct spiritual experience, the second-type
may be termed indirect spiritual experience.
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As the Quran tel s us, “Prostrate yourself and draw near.”
(96:19) For God is always close to us—closer than the life blood
in the jugular vein (50:16). By total surrender to God, the soul can
realise nearness to God.
Similarly, according to this hadith, ‘Worship God as if you
are seeing him’ (Sahih Al-Bukhari) when man engages himself in
true devotion, he is linked with God at a sensory or
psychological level. He comes close to God. Through an
invisible cord he comes in contact with God, God’s light passes
through him. His entire existence comes to be pervaded by this
indescribable feeling, which is called spiritual experience. This is
called Rabbaniat in the Quran (Be people of the Lord 3:79).
Rabbani means one whose thinking, and whose actions are God-
oriented, who has placed God at the centre of his attention.
When an individual attains spirituality, his state becomes like a
lamp lit all of a sudden. He undergoes spiritual experiences. His
heart becomes an ocean of spiritual waves. He appears to live in
this world, but he has found another far superior world for
himself.
These spiritual experiences cannot be explained in words.
Everything in the universe seems to convey to him a divine
message. The leaves of the tree become a thrilling experience. A
waft of air gives him a message of truth. He can hear divine music
in the waves of the river and the chirping of the birds.
Due to his high state of receptivity, he reaches the stage where
the wavelength of God and man becomes one. And he is enabled,
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in the words of the Prophet: “to see with God’s eye, to speak with
God’s tongue, to walk with God’s foot, to hear with the ear of
God.”
Then all limitations vanish and his day and night are spent in
God’s neighbourhood. All this can be felt, not described in words.
This can be explained with the example of a child who has limitless
love for his mother. He knows it himself in the full sense but he
cannot fully describe it in words. The same is true of spirituality.
When a person is linked with the source of spirituality, he
undergoes such spiritual experiences as he himself ful y
understands, but has difficulty in conveying to others. He may
describe some external signs but he cannot describe inner reality.
Although it is difficult to describe the inner reality of
spirituality, its method of attainment can be described to a certain
extent and followed by others.
1. First of all man has to free his mind from confusion. It is
difficult for a confused mind to undergo spiritual experiences.
The basic reason for confused thinking is that man is not able
to differentiate between the real and the superficial, the
relevant and the irrelevant, rational thinking and superstition,
logical and illogical statements.
One who thinks thus will always remain in a state of
mental confusion. He wil never be able to find the straight
path. As a result, his spiritual journey will never be started.
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2. On the path of spirituality one cannot be one’s own guide. And
one certainly needs a guide. This guide is the Quran. It is an
authentic, and carefully preserved book of God. That is why the
Quran can be trusted as a guide by the spiritual traveller. After
making the Quran one’s guide, one can set one’s spiritual
journey on the right track.
3. This spiritual journey demands a change in lifestyle. This
lifestyle for a spiritual traveller may be put briefly in these
words: ‘Simple living and high thinking.’ Simple living means
limiting one’s worldly requirements to the minimum,
assiduously avoiding comfort and luxury. That is why the Sufis
used to wear coarse clothes as a symbol of the simple life. It
helps the traveller in his spiritual journey. High thinking means
that his thoughts are not embroiled in material things. By
engaging one’s mind in higher realities, one becomes a
recipient of divine inspiration. This inspiration of divine light
comes to his mind uninterruptedly, igniting his whole existence.
4. The Quran attaches great importance to reflection and serious
thought. There are a number of verses in the Quran that
indicate that innumerable signs of God are extant in the
heavens and the earth. The observance of God’s signs is the
greatest source of spirituality.
Spirituality called Rabbaniat in the Quran, involves focussing
the mind on higher, non-material realities. Materialism is the
opposite, indeed, the anathema of spirituality. For attaining
spiritual states one has to rise above material things, and focus his
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attention on non-material things. Those who succeed in this are
the spiritual or godly servants of God. As the Quran says:
“Be godly servants of God.” (3:79).
The truly spiritual person does not enjoy material comforts and
luxuries. He feels no desire to acquire them. They have no
attraction for him. For he is engrossed in the higher realities of
spiritual life. This spiritual experience that comes to him from
reflecting upon the signs of God is far superior to what one
experiences in leading a worldly life. The greatest source of
pleasure for him is the remembrance of God. It is this reality, which
finds expression in this verse of the Quran:
“It is only in the remembrance of God that hearts are
comforted.” (13:28)
Here comfort means peace of mind that stems from God
Almighty. For, true and lasting comfort can be achieved only
through the Perfect Being. One who discovers the secret of living
on an elevated plane of spirituality, has discovered a life of
limitlessness. Thus if materialism is to live a life of limitations,
spirituality is to live in limitlessness.
We learn from the Quran that the universe has been fashioned by
God in a way that it may become a source of spiritual inspiration for
man. According to the Qur’an, it is the quality of Tawassum (15:75)
that enables one to find inspiration in the universe. Tawassum is the
ability to understand the signs of nature. That is, to observe the
phenomena of the universe in order to draw lessons from them and
receive spiritual nourishment from the physical events.
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That is to say, a truly religious person is able to convert
physical events into spiritual lessons. He derives spiritual
nourishment from material things. The Quran has described how
godly people continuously derive such sustenance from their
environment, thus maintaining their intellectual and spiritual well
being. This is elaborated upon in the Quran as fol ows:
“In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in
the succession of night and day, there are signs for
men of understanding; those that remember God when
standing, sitting, and lying down, and reflect on the
creation of the heavens and the earth (saying): ‘Lord,
You have not created these in vain. Glory be to You!
Save us from the torment of the fire, Lord.” (3:191)
Meditation is essential for developing our spirituality.
Meditation is a high kind of contemplation. It is not a state of
silence, but a deep kind of thinking process. It takes us from the
seen world to the unseen, from darkness to light, from chaos to
conviction, from limitation to limitlessness, from word to meaning.
It is like a door through which one enters another world. In short,
from the human world we reach the divine world.
The concept of meditation is based in Islam on two things,
at-tafakkur wat-tadabbur (3:191, 4:82). Abu Darda was a senior
companion of the Prophet. After his death a man came to his wife
and asked her what was the most important form of worship
performed by Abu Darda. She replied: He would spend the whole
day thinking, thinking, thinking. According to this, Islamic
meditation is a thinking process rather than the cessation of
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intellectual activity. The Quran further tells us that this intellectual
process has two different directions—al-anfus and al-afaq. Al-anfus
literally means soul, that is, inner world; afaq literally means
universe, that is, external world.
So when a believer sees the universe functioning in a perfect
manner and he finds that all the events in this vast universe always
proceed towards a meaningful result, he realises that man’s life too
must have a meaningful end. This makes him exclaim:
O our Lord! You have not created al this without
purpose. Glory be to you! Give us salvation in the life
to come. (3:191)
Thus the universe is a manifestation of God’s attributes.
Hence, it is a source of spiritual nourishment for those who want to
lead a divine life on earth. For them, the whole universe becomes
an important means of reaching spiritual perfection. This spiritual
development continues throughout their earthly life till a time
comes when they attain that degree of spirituality which the Quran
calls the ‘Rabbani soul.’ It is, souls such as these, who, in the life
Hereafter, will inhabit paradise. Our most compassionate Lord will
say:
“Dwell in Paradise; you shall have no fear, nor shall
you grieve.” (7:49)
There is nothing mysterious about spirituality in Islam. It is
rather the direct result of the kind of intellectual development that
takes place when a believer ponders over the Creator and His
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creation: he gains something in the process that may be termed
spirituality. The source, therefore, of Islamic spirituality is
observation and reflection, rather than any sort of mysterious
exercises.
We learn from the Quran that in the very creation of the
universe, the signs of God lie hidden al around us. One who has
developed keen awareness when he reflects upon the things of the
world is able to see the Creator in His creatures. The meaning of
the creation of the Universe is laid bare before him. Ultimately, the
universe becomes a permanent source of spiritual inspiration. He is
continuously nourished by it during his worldly experience.
A believer is not supposed to shun his normal life in order to
lead a life of observation and contemplation. Islam does not
advocate withdrawing from the world. He has to live in this world
and participate in its activities. What is desired from him is that
while fulfilling all his duties, his heart should not be attached to
worldly affairs. In this way he continues to gain spiritually.
Once a noted scientist said that only a prepared mind can make
a scientific discovery. The same can be said of meditation. Here
also a prepared soul alone can benefit from it. First of all tazkia,
purification of the soul, has to be done through meditation. Tazkia
aims at clearing one’s heart of all kinds of negative sentiments,
otherwise meditation will not work. There is a very interesting story
which illustrates this point.
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A milkman came to Gautam Buddha and asked him to give him
Gyan, i.e. the realisation of truth. Gautam Buddha asked:
“Would you like the milk to be put in an unclean
container?”
The milkman said:
“No. First of all we must clean the container and only
then can we put the milk in it.”
Gautam Buddha then said:
“The same is true of realisation. Realisation can be put
only in a clean container. First of all, you have to
cleanse your heart and mind of all kinds of moral
pollution. Only after this cleaning process will you be
able to receive the truth.”
The preparation during the pre-meditation period is very
important. Anyone who desires to benefit from meditation will have
to complete this pre-meditation course based on simple living and
high thinking.
Jesus Christ once said:
“Man cannot live by bread alone.”
It means that physical food cannot provide complete fulfillment
to man. It requires something more. This something more is
spirituality. If food is needed for the nourishment of the body,
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spirituality is needed for the nourishment of the soul. Both are
required for the complete development of the human personality.
The human body is nourished by material food as is known to
all of us. But the question arises as to how our soul receives its
nourishment. The position of the soul can be likened to ore, and
the position of spirituality can be likened to steel. Then how this
ore is to be developed into spirituality? High thinking alone
provides the answer to this question. This means thinking by rising
above the mundane.
Meditation in Islam aims at bringing man closer to God. When
man worships God, when he remembers Him, when his heart is
turned towards Him with full concentration, when he makes a
request or a plea, he establishes a rapport with his Maker. In the
words of the Hadith, at that particular moment he comes to
whisper with his Lord. He has the tangible feeling that he is
pouring his heart out to God and that God in turn is answering his
call.
When this communion is established between God and man,
man can feel himself becoming imbued with a special kind of
peace. His eyes are moist with tears. He starts receiving inspiration
from God.
According to a hadith the Prophet Muhammad said the highest
form of worship is to pray as if you were seeing God. We learn
from this hadith the true sign of a superior form of worship. The
true sign is for man to sense the presence of God during worship,
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and feel that he has come close to God. That is when he can
experience the refreshing, cooling effect of God’s love and
blessings for man. It is this feeling of closeness to God which is the
highest form of spiritual experience. In chapter 96, the Quran says:
“Do Sajdah (self-prostration) and come nearer to
God.” (96:19).
This Sajdah is the highest form of meditation. Sajdah is a form
of unification of soul and body. According to this Quranic verse,
Sajdah is the meeting point between God and man.
Sajdah is the sign of submission or surrender, for it is only in a
state of submission or surrender that we can meet God Almighty.
Sajdah is the final position of submission for acquiring a place very
close to God.
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12. The Relevance of the Quran and Sunnah in Modern Times
12. THE RELEVANCE OF THE QURAN
AND SUNNAH IN MODERN TIMES
EVERY religion revealed by God was, in its original form, eternal in
character, just as the sun and the moon, the air and the water have
a timeless character about them. Religion, in fact, is another name
for eternal values, which in their nature are timeless and uniformly
applicable in all situations and at al times.
A religion loses its relevance in succeeding ages when it is no
longer preserved in its pristine form owing to human additions and
interpolations. The Prophet of Islam who came in the 7th century,
did not bring a new religion. His mission in fact was aimed at
sifting the divinely revealed parts from the human additions which
had swept into the ancient religions over the ages. The divine
religion thus needed to be established in its original form. This
reality has been expressed thus in the Quran:
“I will show mercy to those who fol ow the Messenger,
the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in
the Torah and the Gospel, he enjoins on them good
and forbids them evil, and makes lawful for them the
good things and forbids them the bad things, and
removes from them their burden and the shackles that
were upon them. So those who shall believe in him,
and honour and support him, and help him, and follow
the light that has been sent down with him shall surely
triumph.” (7:157)
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In this verse “burden” and “shackles” mean human addition. It
is these human additions which make a religion irrelevant in
succeeding ages. When a religion is purified of human additions,
the question of irrelevance with the time automatically vanishes.
Since Islam is free from all these additions, there is no possibility of
Islam being irrelevant at any time or in any situation. In actual fact
the commands given in Islam are totally timeless in character. As
the Quran says:
He has prescribed for you the religion which He
enjoined on Noah, and which We have revealed to you,
and which We enjoined on Ibrahim and Moses and
Jesus, saying, ‘Remain steadfast in obedience, and be
not divided therein. (42:13)
In this verse the believers are commanded to follow those
teachings of religion which were given to all prophets. These are:
monotheism, sincerity, good virtues, character, and good deeds for
the Hereafter. We learn from this verse that there are four parts of
religious teachings sent down by God. One part encompasses all
that is common to all the prophets sent to any part of the world.
These teachings do not change with the changing times. These are
the basic essence of religion. If we have to follow this real part of
religion, the question of relevance or irrelevance does not arise,
whatever the age. For its tenets are based on eternal values.
Another part of God’s religion covers Shariah (Law) and Minhaj
(Method) (see the Quran, 5:48). In this second part of the
teachings some concessions had to be made according to the age
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and situation in which the teachings were revealed. That is why the
prophets were given different Shariah at different times.
In the above verse, Shariah means detailed law and Minhaj
means its method. Since these two things relate very much to
circumstances, they change with the changing situations. For
instance, the principle of marriage between Adam’s sons and
daughters were different from the principles given to other
prophets. Similarly, the respective political methods followed by
Yusuf (Joseph) and Musa were different from one another. This
difference was due to the difference in time and circumstances.
If we look at the teachings of Islam from this angle, we shall
find that there is no conflict between these teachings and the
demands of modern times and that Islam is practicable in the
modern age in the full sense of the word.
The real and basic demand of Islam is that man should believe
in one God. He should worship Him alone. He should embody
truth, honesty, justice and other moral values. In short, within his
own private sphere, he should ful y obey God. Obviously, these
teachings of Islam do not clash with the demands of modern times,
which are equally practicable today.
Another part of Islam pertains to social laws. For instance,
deterrent punishments. These kinds of laws similarly do not clash
with the demands of modern times. For commandments such as
these do not mean that Muslims should start implementing these
commands in whatever circumstances they find themselves. On the
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contrary, the prerequisite for the enforcement of these commands
is that first of all they should be acceptable in society. As long as
they remain unacceptable they will remain in abeyance.
Then there is Minhaj, that is, method. In this field also there is
no clash between Islam and modern times. For, in social matters
Islam will adopt whatever method is worthy of being implemented
according to the spirit of the age. For instance, no attempt will be
made to impose the system of caliphate by force in a country which
has a democratic system. Rather by cooperating with the times,
peaceful Islamic dawah work will be performed as demonstrated in
the lives of the various prophets. In such matters, there is no single
method which emerged among the prophets or the pious caliphs.
We deduce an imporant principle from an incident in the life of the
Prophet of Islam. A person named Musaylama rose in Yaman, who
falsely claimed to be God’s prophet and to have been appointed as
co-prophet along with the Prophet Muhammad. Musaylama sent a
two-member delegation to Madinah to meet the Prophet of Islam
and ask him to acknowledge his prophethood. The Prophet asked
the delegates what opinion they had about Musaylema regarding
his claim to prophethood. They said that they believed in his claim.
At this the Prophet of Islam replied that, had there been no rule in
this world that envoys should not be harmed, he would have had
both of them killed. (Seerat ibn Hisham).
From this incident in the life of the Prophet of Islam, we learn a
very important principle of shariah. That is, if a principle is
generally accepted, at the international level, then the relevant
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Islamic principle will also be the same as that of other nations. This
decision of the Prophet of Islam shows that in matters of age-old
customs the law of the believers as well as of other nations would
not be separate, provided the matter in hand did not pertain to
some unlawful act, for instance, the eating of pork. It is obvious
that if Islam followed this principle in international matters, then
there would be no conflict or clash in the practical sense between
Islam and other nations in respect of changing times.
One important teaching of Islam is that, with the exception of
matters of worship and beliefs, no command is absolute so far as
social matters are concerned. Commands can change with changes
in place and time. The Shariah law can be changed as per the rule
framed by our jurists. “Commands change with the change of time
and place.” This teaching establishes at the outset that in no
circumstance we should clash with the times. Rather, in keeping
with the demand of the times we are free to carve out our path. In
such a situation there is no possibility of Islam ever appearing to be
irrelevant with the change of time. Obviously, when we are not
supposed to go against circumstances, how could Islam ever
become irrelevant due to the changed situation.
From a study of the Prophet’s life we may adduce the
important congregational principle that Islam does not encourage
us to clash with the prevailing political status quo but urges us
instead to pursue our goal by accepting the status quo. This
teaching solves the problem of Islam ever becoming irrelevant with
the changing times. A system becomes irrelevant only when it is at
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variance with the changing times. When there is no such clash, the
question of irrelevance does not arise at all.
The guidance of the Prophet of Islam has been gathered
together in books of traditions, one part of which is found in
Kitab al Fitan. In these traditions Muslims have been commanded,
in no uncertain terms, that in any circumstance and in any age
when they find political corruption among the rulers, they must
sedulously refrain from opting for a policy of confrontation with
them. Total y avoiding political confrontation with them, they
must continue working in non-controversial spheres, for instance,
in the fields of education, dawah, economics, social work, etc.
The aim of this teaching of the Prophet is to make Islam relevant
at all times.
The actual target of Islam is the intellectual, spiritual and
moral rectification of the individual. This task is wholly related to
the sphere of individual freedom. Today the principle has been
accepted al over the world that every individual should be
granted ful freedom in his own personal sphere. He is free to
think and act as he likes. This is the actual sphere of Islamic
action. And when in this sphere every individual is granted total
freedom, no objection can be raised that Islam has lost its
relevance in modern times.
Another sphere of human action is that which concerns social
matters. This is the sphere in which confrontation takes place with
others, raising the question of relevance and irrelevance. Islamic
teaching for this sphere is action in accordance with circumstances.
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If circumstances are not conducive for an action, we have to fol ow
the path of persuasion and counselling, strictly adhering to
peaceful means.
There are also certain matters where the teachings of Islam
apparently go against the prevalent custom. For instance, the
justification of wine, interest-based economy, deterrent
punishment, different workplaces for men and women or secular
democracy in place of the Khilafat, etc. The teachings of Islam in
such matters are clearly different from the prevalent custom of
modern times. And as we know, the majority today is not at the
moment willing to accept the teaching of Islam in these matters.
This would appear to show that Islam has become irrelevant in
modern times. But it is not right to draw this conclusion in haste. It
is true that the teachings of Islam in social matters are different
from the custom of the age. But this is a matter which pertains to
ideological difference. Islam does not enjoin its followers to set
about changing the status quo at the first instance, in order to
replace it with the Islamic system. The teaching of Islam in this
matter is to opt for the way of patience. That is, refraining
completely from launching oneself on a collision course and rather
communicating one’s point of view in the language of persuasion.
In this way an atmosphere can be created which is favourable to
Islam and the relevance of Islam can be proved purely on a rational
basis, so that it may find acceptance in due course.
In modern times there are two aspects to a religion becoming
irrelevant, one ideological, another practical. Becoming irrelevant
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from the practical point of view means that a religion gives such
commands to its adherents as are impracticable from the point of
view of the age factor. As mentioned above, no such command
exists in Islam. In its practical aspects, Islam is a religion of
adjustment, giving ample concession to circumstances. There is
enough flexibility in Islam in this regard. That is why Islam could
never become irrelevant, whatever the age, so far as practical
matters are concerned.
When we look at this issue from the ideological point of view,
we do find on certain occasions, that the demands of Islam and the
demands of the age are diametrically opposed to one another. But
as mentioned above, in matters of ideological dif erences the way
of peaceful persuasion alone will be adopted. At all events, no
practical initiative be taken, when the circumstances are
unfavourable. In such a state of affairs, ideological difference can
never create any problem in any age or in any situation.
One thing is worth remembering in this connection, and that
concerns Ijtihaad. One role of Ijtihaad is that whenever any
teaching of Islam appears to be going against the demands of the
time, the religious scholars are duty-bound to strive by exercising
Ijtihaad to seek a reapplication of the teachings of Islam to
changing situations. Ijtihaad is in fact another name for seeking
reapplication of Islamic teachings to the changing needs of the
time. (See chapter on Ijtihaad).
Muslim scholars of modern times, feeling the need to exercise
Ijtihaad have made an effort to reapply the principle of Islam in this
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matter. For instance, on the Indian subcontinent Maulana Husain
Ahmad Madani and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad said that since in
modern times the nationality was linked with the homeland, Islam
would also fol ow the same principle. That is to say, in whichever
country Muslims lived, they would be regarded as
co-patriots like other citizens. And they would not insist on a
separate nationality for themselves.
The aim of Ijtihaad is that in all ages the gap between Islam and
the age may continue to be filled. In no circumstance should the
impression be formed that Islam has become irrelevant in the
changed circumstances. It was due to the importance of this matter
that the Prophet of Islam encouraged Muslims to continue the
process of Ijtihaad, even at the risk of making mistakes. In no
circumstance was the door of Ijtihaad to be closed.
The actual goal of Islam is to bring about an intellectual
revolution among the people. Such a task is eternal in its nature.
That is why along with eternal laws goes the principle of flexibility
in Islam. Along with azimah (commands) Islam gives ample space
for concessions and exemptions. Along with the observance of
form Islam gives equal importance to the spirit.
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